SOAN-317 Final Exam (Human Origins)

Biological Anthropology

the study of the biological and evolutionary aspects of the human species, including the study of human evolution, genetics, primatology (the study of non-human primates), human variation, and the fossil record.

Phenotype

The observable traits of an organism (like eye color, height, or blood type) that result from the interaction between its genotype and the environment

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism; the set of genes it carries.

Evolution

The change in the genetic makeup of a population over time, often leading to the development of new species.

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those traits.

Genetic Variation

Differences in DNA sequences among individuals in a population, which provide the raw material for evolution.

Adaptation

A trait that increases an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment

Darwin

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection as the primary mechanism of evolution.

Lamarck

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck suggested that organisms could pass on traits acquired during their lifetime—a concept later rejected but important in the history of evolutionary thought.

Phenology

The evolutionary history and relationships among species or groups of organisms.

Race Concept

A now outdated idea that humans can be divided into biologically distinct races. Modern anthropology recognizes that race is a social construct, not a biological reality.

Cline

A gradual change in a biological trait (like skin color or height) across a geographic area

Melanin

A pigment found in the skin that helps protect against ultraviolet radiation; the main factor in skin color variation

Sexual Dimorphism

Differences in size or appearance between males and females of the same species, often related to reproduction.

Allen’s Rule

States that animals in colder climates tend to have shorter limbs to conserve heat, while those in warmer climates have longer limbs to release heat.

Bergmann’s Rule

States that body size tends to be larger in colder climates to retain heat and smaller in warmer climates to help dissipate heat.

Characteristics

Distinct features or qualities of an organism; used in identifying and comparing species.

Brachiation

A form of movement used by some primates (like gibbons), where they swing from tree limb to tree limb using only their arms.

Altruism

Behavior that benefits another individual at a cost to oneself, often seen in primate groups and sometimes explained by kin selection (helping relatives pass on shared genes).

Monogamy

A mating system in which one male and one female form a long-term reproductive partnership, often associated with high levels of parental care.

Polygyny

A mating system where one male mates with multiple females. Common in species where males compete for access to females.

Male Reproductive Strategies

Behaviors and biological adaptations males use to increase their chances of reproducing (e.g., competing for mates, displaying strength, or guarding mates).

Female Parental Investment

The time, energy, and resources a female puts into raising offspring—generally higher in females due to pregnancy, nursing, and childcare.

Social Groups

The structured communities that primates (including humans) live in. Group living can offer protection, cooperation, and access to mates.

Cooperation

Working together toward a common goal; seen in hunting, child-rearing, and defending against predators—important in both human and primate evolution.

Relative Dating

Methods that tell whether something is older or younger than something else, without giving a specific age (e.g., stratigraphy—layers of earth).

Absolute Dating

Methods that provide a calendar age or range (e.g., "this fossil is 4,000 years old").

Radiocarbon Dating

A type of absolute dating that measures the decay of carbon-14 in once-living materials to determine age (effective up to ~50,000 years ago).

Half-Life

The time it takes for half of a radioactive isotope (like carbon-14) in a sample to decay. This is what radiocarbon dating is based on.

Arboreal Adaptation

Physical traits that help primates live in trees, like grasping hands and feet, flexible joints, and good depth perception.

Precision Grip

The ability to hold and manipulate small objects using the thumb and fingertips, crucial for tool use and fine motor control in humans.

Dietary Plasticity

The ability of an organism to adapt its diet to different environments; primates, including humans, can eat a wide variety of foods.

Cladistics

A method of classifying species based on common ancestry and evolutionary relationships, using shared traits (called derived traits).

Nocturnal Adaptation

Traits that allow primates to be active at night, such as large eyes for better night vision.

Primate Intelligence

Refers to the advanced cognitive abilities of primates, including learning, problem-solving, and using tools.

Complex Social Behavior

Behaviors like communication, alliances, grooming, and cultural learning; important in both non-human primates and humans.

Bipedalism

Walking on two legs; a key trait that distinguishes humans and their ancestors from other primates.

Foramen Magnum

The hole at the base of the skull where the spinal cord connects to the brain; its position indicates whether an animal walked upright.

Femur Angle

The inward angle of the thigh bone (femur) toward the knee; helps support balance while walking upright.

Longitudinal Arch

The arch in the human foot that helps absorb shock and provides support while walking or running

Ardipithecus

One of the earliest known hominins (~4.4 million years ago); showed a mix of bipedalism and arboreal traits.

Australopithecus

A genus of early hominins (like Lucy) known for walking upright but with small brains and ape-like features (~4–2 million years ago).

Paranthropus

A genus of robust hominins with large jaws and teeth for chewing tough plant material (~2.7–1 million years ago).

Homo Habilis

An early member of the genus Homo, known as “handy man,” associated with early stone tools (~2.4–1.4 million years ago).

Homo erectus

A widespread and long-lived species of early human, known for larger brains, more advanced tools, and possible control of fire (~1.9 million–110,000 years ago)

Homo Neandertals

A species closely related to modern humans, adapted to cold climates, with complex tools, burials, and possibly language (~400,000–40,000 years ago).

Modern Homo Sapiens

Anatomically modern humans; characterized by complex tools, art, culture, language, and global dispersal

Stone Tools

Tools made by chipping stones to create sharp edges; essential to human survival and evolution.

Oldowan Tools

The oldest known stone tools, used by Homo habilis, mainly for cutting and chopping (~2.6 million years ago)

Archeulean Tools

More advanced stone tools (like hand axes) associated with Homo erectus, showing planning and skill (~1.76 million years ago)

Cooking hypothesis

The idea that cooking food made nutrients more accessible and supported the evolution of larger brains in humans

Neandertal Diet

Included meat, plants, and possibly cooked foods; varied by region and season.

Neandertal Extinction

Likely caused by a mix of climate change, competition with modern humans, and possibly interbreeding

Genetic Assimilation

The process by which genes from one population (like Neandertals) are absorbed into another (modern humans) through interbreeding.

Modern Human Traits

Include high forehead, small jaw and teeth, rounded skull, chin, and complex cultural behaviors.

Clovis Points

Distinctive stone tools used by early peoples in North America (~13,000 years ago), often linked to big-game hunting.

Domestication

The process of breeding plants and animals for human use, which began during the Neolithic Revolution.

Infection Disease

Became more common as humans lived in larger, denser populations with domesticated animals.

Height Changes

Human height has varied over time, influenced by nutrition, lifestyle, and health.

Activity Levels

Physical activity shaped human anatomy; modern sedentary lifestyles differ greatly from ancestral patterns.

Osteoarthritis

A degenerative joint disease often seen in ancient skeletons, linked to repetitive labor or aging.

Food Surplus

A result of agriculture, allowing for population growth, trade, and the development of civilizations.

Population Growth

Increased dramatically after agriculture, leading to more complex societies, cities, and eventually global population expansion.