AP Psych Unit 4B 2025

social psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. The focus is on the situation - why does the same person act differently in different situations? Our social behavior arises from our social thinking

motivation

Need or desire directed towards a specific goal. Our motives drive our behavior.

nature and nurture in motivation

Our motivations come from an interplay between nature and nurture. Nature = push and nurture = pull. Innate biological predispositions, like the need for food or social connection, interact with our life experiences, upbringing, and social cues to determine how strongly motivated we are to pursue specific goals and behaviors

instinct theory

Our instincts are the source of our motivations. We are motivated to behave in a certain way due to our innate instincts. Instincts are innate, complex, unlearned, fixed, and triggered by specific stimuli. Ex: Fight, flight, freeze; sucking, rooting reflex, grasping reflex; imprinting, desire to procreate, yawning

drive reduction theory

We are motivated because we don't have what we want or need. Drives come from within, return body to homeostasis, flexible responses. If we don't have what we need - we are in a state of imbalance. And your body wants balance or "homeostasis"

arousal theory

People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal (a state of alertness, excitement, or mental and physical activation). Arousal theory says we are motivated to seek the right level of excitement or alertness—not too much, and not too little—to feel our best. Includes Yerkes Dodson Law

Yerkes Dodson Law

says an optimal level of arousal leads to an optimal level of performance

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A theory that to be motivated, one must obtain physiological needs before they can achieve psychological needs and that there is a sequential order. Physiological needs, safety needs, love needs, esteem needs, self-actualization

achievement motivation

When an individual has motivation to achieve mastery of a subject and will continue to achieve more significant accomplishments even when they are already successful.

self-efficacy

An individual's belief in their own ability to exercise control over their lives. Influenced by past experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological feedback.

Instinct

An instinct is an innate, complex behavior that an organism is born with. It is automatic and the same for all members of a species. Ex: Birds building nests, babies sucking for milk, spiders spinning webs. Unlearned: No teaching or experience needed. Fixed Pattern: The behavior looks the same every time.

Drive

A drive is a strong need or urge that comes from within an organism, often to maintain balance in the body (homeostasis). Drives push an organism to take action to satisfy a need.

motivating factors

While instincts and drives explain many of our automatic and survival-based behaviors, a significant part of human behavior is influenced by other motivating factors. So human psychology is complex and it is important to understand how different types of motivation can influence learning, productivity, and well-being. The right kind of motivation can lead to greater fulfillment and sustained effort.

Self-determination theory

Self determination theory says that people are motivated by internal and external factors. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators

extrinsic motivation

Sometimes we are motivated by external factors. This is called Extrinsic Motivation: a desire to perform a behavior to receive a promised reward or to avoid a threatened punishment. Extrinsic motivation is also part of incentive theory which investigates how rewards motivate behavior

intrinsic motivation

Sometimes we are motivated by internal factors. This is called Intrinsic Motivation: a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake (i.e., for personal satisfaction, curiosity, pleasure)

inverted u???

Describes the relationship between arousal and performance. Both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal. Many factors go into arousal such as how well you know the task, your desire for thrill, disinhibition etc

Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory

Approach-approach conflict, approach-avoidance conflict, avoidance-avoidance conflict

approach-approach conflict

Wanting two things, but only being able to have one. You have to miss out on one

approach-avoidance conflict

Wanting something, but also not wanting it or not wanting a part of it

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Not wanting either choice, but having to choose at least one unpleasant thing

personality

Patterns of thinking, feeling, and actions. It is persistent in your life and influences behavior. Many theories that help us understand personality.

psychoanalytic theory

Focus on your childhood, unconscious, sexual and aggressive impulses, anxiety driven defense mechanisms. Our behavior is driven by unconscious motives and desires which develop through early childhood experiences and present through dreams and Freudian slips. Sigmund Freud.

psychodynamic theory

Focus on your childhood, your unconscious, anxiety driven defense mechanisms. Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney.

unconscious mind

The part of the mind that holds thoughts, memories, and desires outside of conscious awareness but that influence behavior.

Freud's structural model of the psyche

id, ego, superego

id

The most primitive part of the psyche, the id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires, instincts, and impulses (such as hunger, aggression, and sexuality). It is entirely unconscious and disregards reality or morality.

ego

The rational part of the mind, the ego operates on the reality principle and mediates between the impulsive id and the moralistic superego. It considers real-world consequences, delaying gratification when necessary and using logic to navigate societal expectations.

superego

Representing internalized societal and parental values, the superego operates on the morality principle. It enforces rules, ideals, and guilt, striving for perfection and often creating inner conflict with the id's desires.

How do we measure the unconscious mind?

Psychoanalytic techniques, behavioral observations

Psychoanalytic techniques

Free association, dream analysis, projective tests

Free association

A person is asked to say whatever comes to mind without filtering or censoring their thoughts. This can uncover repressed memories or feelings that have been pushed out of conscious awareness.

dream analysis

Freud famously considered dreams the "royal road to the unconscious." By analyzing the manifest content (the dream as it appears) and latent content (the hidden meanings), psychoanalysts attempt to uncover unconscious desires, fears, or conflicts.

projective tests

These are designed to reveal unconscious thoughts through ambiguous stimuli. Rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test (TAT)

rorschach inkblot test

Individuals are shown inkblots and asked what they see. Their interpretations are thought to reveal underlying emotional or psychological states.

thematic apperception test (TAT)

People are shown ambiguous pictures and asked to tell a story about what's happening. Their stories often reveal hidden desires, social dynamics, and conflicts.

behavioral observations

freudian slips, nonverbal behavior

freudian slips

Mistakes made in speech or behavior (e.g., calling someone by the wrong name or accidentally making a rude comment) are often believed to reflect unconscious desires or suppressed thoughts

nonverbal behavior

Unconscious feelings or intentions may be revealed through body language, facial expressions, and other nonverbal cues. Psychologists analyze these subtle cues as a way to tap into the unconscious.

Anxiety reducing defense mechanisms

Denial, displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression, sublimation

Denial

Anxiety reducing defense mechanism in which you refuse to acknowledge reality or facts to protect yourself from emotional distress. Ex: A smoker insists that cigarettes don't cause health problems, despite overwhelming medical evidence

displacement

Anxiety reducing defense mechanism in which you redirect emotions from the original source to a safer target. Ex: After being scolded by his boss, a dad comes home and yells at his wife. The wife then yells at their son.. Their son then yells at the dog.

projection

Anxiety reducing defense mechanism in which you attribute one's own undesirable thoughts or feelings to others. Ex: Accusing someone of being angry when you are the one feeling anger.

rationalization

Anxiety reducing defense mechanism in which you justify irrational or harmful behavior with logical-sounding excuses. Ex: George failed his history exam and blames the teacher for being a poor instructor rather than admitting that he did not study.

reaction formation

Anxiety reducing defense mechanism in which a person unconsciously replaces an unacceptable impulse, thought, or feeling with its opposite. Basically, acting in the opposite way of one's true feelings. Ex: Frank teases Marissa because he has a crush on her.

regression

Anxiety reducing defense mechanism in which you resort to an earlier stage of development. Ex: A grown adult throws a temper tantrum when they don't get their way in a business meeting.

repression

Anxiety reducing defense mechanism in which you push distressing thoughts or memories into the unconscious to avoid painful feelings. Ex: Andy was in a bad car accident when he was four years old. Now at 16, he is anxious while driving even though he does not recall details of the car accident.

sublimation

Anxiety reducing defense mechanism in which you channel unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities. Ex: A twelve-year-old boy has aggressive tendencies and is drawn towards high contact sports like football and wrestling.

Maslow and Self-Actualization

We continue to grow into the person we want to become. We want to reach our full potential. This takes time. Developed this idea by studying those who were living a meaningful life.

Traits

Trait theories of personality focus on

Likert scale

a numerical scale used to assess attitudes; includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme

factor analysis

A statistical method that helps psychologists find patterns in large sets of data, like responses to personality questionnaires. It groups similar answers together to identify broader traits. Makes it easier to understand complex personalities by simplifying them into core traits that describe how people generally think and behave.

Big Five

This theory proposes that there are 5 core personality traits that together describe a person's personality. Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness

Extraversion

social cognitive theory of personality

A psychological perspective that emphasizes how a person's thoughts, behaviors, and environment interact with each other to shape their personality, with the key concept being "reciprocal determinism" which states that these factors constantly influence one another; primarily developed by psychologist Albert Bandura, this theory highlights the importance of observational learning and modeling behaviors observed in others.

self-esteem

feelings of self worth

self-concept

thoughts and feelings that answer: who am I?

recirpocal determinism

Our behaviors, cognition, and environment interact in our personality.

humanistic theory of personality

Humanism was born out of a response to the somewhat dark and negative perspective of Freud and the emphasis on the past in Psychodynamic Theory. Humanistic Theory of Personality focuses on the positive, forward looking aspects of people. It has laid the foundation for positive psychology. Humanists believe people are generally on a positive path, people generally want to better themselves, people are basically good, people are naturally endowed with self-actualizing tendencies.

growth promoting climate

Humans grow when they are in supportive relationships and feel: Unconditional positive regard, genuineness, empathy.

When people feel accepted and prized, they develop a more caring attitude towards themselves.

unconditional positive regard

Caring, accepting, non-judgemental attitude that helps people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. Accepting someone for who they are despite their faults. When someone feels unconditional positive regard from another person, it provides a sense of stability and feelings of acceptance that are essential to human survival

genuineness

when people are genuine they drop their pretenses, are open with their feelings, and self-disclose

empathy

Showing real understanding of others' feelings, mirroring their feelings, and reflecting the meaning of their feelings. When someone is empathetically heard it becomes possible for

assessment of the self according to humanistic theory

Humanistic psychologists believe personal interviews and intimate conversations provide a better understanding of someone's personality than any standardized assessment. Life story approach and ideal self vs. actual self