Criticisms of CD

Keddie (1973)

Argued against victim blaming and suggested that children's failure cannot be attributed to their home background.

Victim Blaming

The concept suggesting that individuals are responsible for their own misfortunes.

Working-Class (W/C) Culture

A culture that should be built upon for educational success, rather than viewed as deprived.

Middle-Class (M/C) Values

Values that dominate the educational system, putting W/C children at a disadvantage.

Blackstone and Mortimore

Found that W/C parents have lower school event attendance due to long hours and find school environments off-putting.

Parent-School Contact

The effectiveness of communication and interaction between parents and schools, often less effective in W/C-dominated schools.

Troyna and Williams

Research indicating a speech hierarchy among teachers that results in varying expectations for students based on background.

Speech Hierarchy

An ingrained ranking of speech patterns among teachers that affects their treatment of students from different social classes and ethnicities.

Bernstein

Recognized the influence of school on children's achievement and argued W/C students fail not due to cultural deprivation but due to the school's failure to teach elaborated code.

Elaborated Code

A form of language used in schools, that is often not taught to or used by W/C children, affecting their academic performance.

Gaine and Georgy

Differences in W/C and M/C speech are exaggerated and oversimplified.