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roles of microbes
pathogens
food chain
digestion
foods and fermentation
antibiotics
biotechnology
bioremediation
disease research
roles of microbes in food chain
Autotrophs: organisms that use sun energy to create glucose (perform photosynthesis)
Decomposers - makes nutrients in dead organism available to other organisms (bacteria and fungi)
role of microbes in digestion
can cause infections and there are also microbes that help to digest food
examples of microbes in food and fermentation
mushrooms, yeast, seaweed, spirulina; fermentation of yeast, bacteria for cheese or kimchi
role of microbes in antibiotics and biotechnology
production: microbes that create compounds that are able to kill other microbes
vectors and enzymes
role of microbes in bioremediation
Metabolize oil - clean up environment by degrading oil
why do we use microbes for biological research?
size/structure
Relatively small and simple
Large populations
Billions and trillions of cells
Rapid growth rate
Double in 20min or fewer
Research benefits
Vaccines
Antibiotics
how do we get nitrogen?
We rely on bacteria to get our nitrogen, through nitrogen fixation, they can do the same thing with sulfur
microbes allow for the ___ in the ecosystem
recycling of nutrients
how are microbes used in agriculture?
Microbes in cows break down cellulose to CO2 and methane
how are microbes used in biofuels?
biofuels can be created with microbes, corn to ethanol
microbes can be used to mine as well
microbes ability to pull nitrogen from the atmosphere and convert it into another form is very important
microbes are important in?
agriculture
energy/environment
food preservation and fermented foods or food additives
biotechnology (GMOs or production of pharmaceuticals)
Disease (new diseases or used as the treatment, cure, or preventative)
where can microbes be found?
microorganisms are found nearly everywhere there is water and sometimes where there is not
Found in hot springs, ice, and sea vents
drilling cores
undersea vents
why can microbes tolerate environmental stressors?
because they have evolved to live in the environment where they are (environmental versatility)
How did linneaus classify organisms?
everything was classified as plants or animals
Who made and when were the classifications plants, animals, and protists
1866
Haeckel
How did Whittaker separate the kingdoms in 1959?
monera, protists, fungi, plantae, and animalia
How did Woose, Kandler, and Wheelis in 1990 make their classifications?
separated into bacteria and archaea (prokaryotes) and eukarya
What are the three domains of life based on?
DNA sequencing data, they were able to tell how organisms were related to each other
what do phylogenetic trees allow us to see?
how closely related organisms are
prokaryotes
do not have a nucleus, DNA is freefloating
include archaea and bacteria
what does it mean to for archaea to be environmental extremophiles?
they thrive in extreme environments
what size and shape can prokaryotes be?
Between 0.5 - 2.0 micrometers, can be up to 60
eukaryotes and examples
one domain; includes animals like us
“True nucleus” - DNA is found in a nucleus
Insects (mosquitos or bees) and other arthropods (scorpions or spiders)
viruses
Viruses are not cells, and they are not considered living because they cannot make their own energy
Bacteriophage - viruses that infect bacteria
prions
Very weird
Not viruses, they are bad proteins that have the wrong shape
Cause degenerative diseases in the brain, very rapid
what is the first line of defense? how does it fight infections?
innate immune system
they fight every infection the same way
What is the first line of defense’s physical factors made of?
the skin, mucous membranes, earwax, hair in nose, epiglottis, and peristalsis
what is the skin composed of? what helps it inhibit microbial growth?
epidermis and dermis
Shedding and dryness of skin inhibit microbial growth
epidermis
outer layer, consists of tightly packed cells, some contain keratin
dermis
inner portion, made of connective tissue
what are the mucous membranes made of?
mucus and ciliary escalators
mucus
viscous glycoproteins that trap microbes and prevent tracts from drying out
Ciliary escalator
transports microbes trapped in mucus away from lungs
Goblet cells produce mucus
earwax
prevents microbes from entering ear
hair in nose
traps microbes
epiglottis
prevent food/microbes from entering lungs
what do peristalsis, defecation, vomiting, and diarrhea do?
all physically remove microbes from body
what are cleansing actions carried out by?
Lacrimal apparatus
Bodily fluids
what does the lacrimal apparatus do?
drains tears, washes eyes
what are bodily fluids functions?
Saliva, urine, vaginal secretions, semen, nasal mucus
Flow out and remove microbes and prevent colonization
what are the chemical factors of the first line of defense?
Sebum on skin: fungistatic fatty acid from perspiration
Forms protective film and lowers pH (3-5)
Lysozyme destroys bacterial cell wall
Perspiration, tears, saliva, urine, and tissue fluids
Low pH chemicals
Gastric juice (1.2-3.0) - destroys microbes
Vaginal secretions (3-5) - inhibits microbes
second line of defense
has many functions
Non-specific (present at birth) - involve specific types of cells
what happens after an injury?
Infections form pockets of infections called abcesses
Platelets in the blood rush to injury site to create a scab
what are some of the functions of the second line of defense?
Infections form pockets of infections called abcesses
Platelets in the blood rush to injury site to create a scab
Phagocytosis - engulf pathogens and destroy them
Secrete chemicals to cause inflammation
Some cells interact to stimulate the third line of defense
what did Metchnikoff do? 1845-1916
Won nobel prize
Worked on role of white blood cells in fighting
Discovered phagocytes in human blood
what is inflammation?
redness, swelling, pain, and heat localized at the site of infection
Attracts phagocytic cells to infected area
what does inflammation do? can it cause damage?
Effective inflammatory response isolates and limits tissue damage, destroying damaged cells and pathogens
Inflammation can result in considerable damage to healthy tissue if reaction becomes widespread
systemtic inflammatory reaction consequences
septic shock
uncontrollable fever
death in up to 30% of individuals
what causes toxic shock syndrome?
Certain bacteria, including staphylococcus aureus and streptococcus pyogenes produce “superantigens”
these cause activation of 20% of T cells in the body, creating a cytokine storm
what is toxic shock syndrome associated with? how many cases a year? which famous person died from it?
superabsorbent tampons
Current numbers stand at 1-17 cases per 100,000 menstruating people per year
Caused death of very famous man in 1990 - creator of the muppets - Jim Henson
what is the third line of defense? what cells does it use?
adaptive
uses specific cells
b cells and t cells
what does the third line of defense do?
Reacts to specific proteins or other complex molecules on the pathogen’s cell surface
Antigens
Learns about every infection we’ve had
Reacts to specific parts of a molecule
characteristics of the third line of defense?
Specificity of antigen-antibody is dependent on lymphocyte cell receptors interacting with individual pathogen
Memory: subsequent exposures to the same antigen result in rapid production of large quantities of antigen-reactive T cells or antibodies
Like vaccines
Tolerance: the acquired inability to make an adaptive immune response to one’s own antigens
Discrimination between foreign and host antigens - self and non-self
t cells activate a lot of things
b cells can produce antibodies to fight antigen
what are anitbodies made by? what are they made of? where are they found?
made by B cells which become plasma cells that produce antibodies
they are immunoglobulins or protein molecules
found in serum, milk, and gastric secretions
IgG
Located in tissue fluid and plasma
Activates complement - punches holes in infected cells
Defends against bacteria, viruses, and toxins
Protects fetus and newborn - found in placenta or breast milk
IgA
Located in secretions
Defends against bacteria and viruses
IgM
Located in plasma
Reacts with naturally occurring antigens on RBC’s following certain blood trasnfusions
Activates complements, which destroys blood cells
IgD
Located on surface of most B lymphocytes
Plays a role in B cell activation
IgE
Located in secretions
Promotes inflammation and allergic reactions
what are the three steps of antibody production?
exposure to antigen and secretion of antigen-specific antibody
antigen-stimulated B cells multiply and differentiate into plasma and memory cells (primary antibody response)
Memory B cells generated may live for years and quickly transform into antibody-secreting cells (secondary antibody response)
antibody effects
Agglutination
cross-bridges of antigen and antibody, complex forms
Complement mediated effects
Opsonization
Lysis
Neutralization
Toxins and viruses, prevents from binding to cell
What are the T cell types?
Helper T cells: stimulate immune response, activate t cells, b cells, and mmacrophages
Delayed hypersensitivity T cells - allergies
Cytotoxic T cells - death of infected cell
Memory t cells: remember infection and can turn into cell to fight it
Active vs passive immunity
active : patient made antibodies
Passive: someone else passed on antibodies
Not everyone has had artificial passive
what are vaccines? what are they made of?
Designed to provide the first exposure to disease-causing organisms without having the risk of disease
Made with dead or attenuated,weakened pathogen, or with pathogen fragments
what is herd immunity? how does it work?
is the resistance of a group to infection due to immunity of a high proportion of the members of the group
Immunized people protect non-immunized people because the pathogen cannot be passed on and the cycle of infectivity is broken
how is health measured from prehistoric remains?
harris lines
wilson bands
enamel hypoplasia
what are harris lines? what do they indicate?
Any of various dense transverse lines observed in radiographs of long bones, representing bone regrowth after temporary cessation of longitudinal growth
Indicates during childhood when bones were growing, shows a period of malnutrition or sickness
what are wilson bands
changes in tooth enamel due to poor diet
what is enamel hypoplasia? what does it indicate?
irregularities in tooth enamel
Indicates periods of malnutrition
characteristics of early man?
gathering
hunting
agriculture - 10,000 BP
crops
fishing
domestication of animals
settlements
animal domestication during the neolithic/agricultural revolution. how did it cause more disease?
Livestock, pets (livestock- cattle, work - horses, pets - dogs)
Diseases shared with animals - people began living with animals and experiencing their diseases (ectoparasites - fleas and ticks)
environmental disruption during the neolithic/agricultural revolution.
Living in groups (settlements)
Tons of people were living in close proximity to each other and interacting every day
problems with city life
Garbage
Social change - rules
Changes in work
Crowds
Fire
Disease
what was the pharaoh’s plague?
bloody urine
Caused by Schistosomiasis - blood flukes - worms that live in blood
what was suspected to be in athens?
typhoid or typhus
Rome diseases
Roman fever = Malaria
Antonine plague = smallpox?
Cyprian plague = Smallpox or measles? Ergot poisoning? - ergot is a fungus that infects barley and millet
Justinian plague = Bubonic plague
what is schistosomiasis? how do the worms get into the body?
parasitic disease caused by trematode flatworms of the genus Schistosoma
Larval forms of the parasites penetrate the skin of people in the water
urinary schistosomiasis
there is progressive damage to the bladder, ureters and kidneys
intestinal schistosomiasis
there is progressive enlargement of the liver and spleen, intestinal damage, and hypertension of the abdominal blood vessels (high blood pressure)
ancient evidence of schistosomiasis
an analysis of mummified skin revealed traces of proteins belonging to S. mansoni - the first proof that ancient Nubians (1,500 BP), or any ancient civilization were affected by schistosomiasis - found proteins in the skin
how is typhoid passed? what are the symptoms? how long does it last? who is most susceptible?
Bacteria passed in feces
Diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps 12 to 72 hours after infection
Illness usually lasts 4 to 7 days, and most persons recover without treatment
Elderly, infants, and those with impaired immune systems more likely to have severe illness
when did the plague of athens break out? what facilitated it? what disease was it suspected to be?
broke out in Greece during the Peloponnesian War in 430 BC
Inhabitants of Athens retreated behind the city-state’s walls for protection from Sparta
Cramped quarters inevitably became a breeding ground for the disease
typhus or typhoid
is typhoid in the US? what did Typhoid Mary do?
Does exist, but isn’t very common due to good sanitation
Typhoid Mary killed about 1,300 people due to spreading disease to families that she worked for
She was quarantined for the rest of her life because she refused to take her gallbladder out
what plagues were in the ancient world?
Smallpox - in the Roman world and everywhere - viral
Shigella - bacteria
Malaria - protozoal
Measles - viral
Cholera - bacterial
Dengue - viral
Plague - Justinian - led to the middle ages - bacterial
Why is it hard to know what the cause of ancient disease was?
Ancient people did not record the information about the disease
Ancient people could not identify the disease the same way we do
We cannot isolate bacteria from people who have been dead for thousands of years
what time period was the Middle Ages?
Talking about Fall of Roman Empire to the fall of Constantinople, around 2000 years
Cities were becoming densely packed
What were the 3 new diseases of the middle ages?
Leprosy (ancient) - transmitted by direct contact
Tuberculosis - transmitted by inhaling bacteria
Sweating sickness - high fever, sweating, and high mortality rate (no real definition)
where was leprosy found? what does it do? what are the complications? how is it transmitted in the US?
was in egypt around 3,500 BP
Actually not very contagious
Leads to nerve damage and death of extremeties
Disease frightened people
Many sent to live in leper colonies - isolated there for rest of their life
Including those with other diseases
Slow growing bacteria makes treatment difficult
Similar to tuberculosis
Extended antibiotic treatment
In US, transmitted by armadillos
ancient plagues (3)
Malaria - transmitted by mosquitos
Smallpox - relatively high mortality rate
Bubonic - caused by yersinia pestis, can get it from camping near yosemite
what were the 8 ancient treatments
bathing in blood
blood letting
mercury/arsenic
animal dung
moldy bread
therapeutic stink
mice
venom
bathing in blood
Blood of children and virgins was best
Used as a therapy for leprosy until 1790
blood letting
Balanced the “humors” (bad bodily fluids)
Used leeches
Used for many diseases, including plague
George washington was treated this way before his death
mercury/arsenic
Used to treat infectious diseases, including syphilis, until the early 20th century
Also made people crazy/killed them
animal dung
Egyptians used it for diseases and infections
Some antimicrobial properties, could also cause tetanus
moldy bread
Egyptians used to disinfect cuts
Many microbes are used to create antibiotics so they somewhat act as antibiotics
Therapeutic stink (aka farts in a jar)
Plague thought to be caused by bad vapors
Use like to defeat like
Thought they could balance the smell
mice
Egyptians would make mouse paste for toothaches
Elizabethan england - cut a mouse in half to cure warts
Also used to treat whooping cough, smallpox, measles, and bed-wetting