Psychology Unit 1 - Unit 2.1 Vocabulary

Cultural norms

The shared expectations and rules that guide behavior within a social group.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's existing beliefs.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an event, that one could have predicted the outcome.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate their knowledge or abilities.

Experiment

A research method where a researcher manipulates one variable to observe its effect on another.

Random assignment

The process of allocating participants to different groups in an experiment by chance.

Case Study

A research design involving an in-depth examination of a single subject or case.

Correlational Study

A research method where variables are measured to assess their statistical relationship.

Naturalistic Observation

A method where behavior is observed and recorded in a real-world setting without manipulation.

Hypothesis

A proposed, testable explanation for a phenomenon.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis that can be proven false through observation or experimentation.

Operational Definition

A clear description of how a concept or variable will be measured or manipulated in a study.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to see if original findings can be consistently reproduced.

Independent variable

The factor that a researcher manipulates in an experiment to observe its effect.

Dependent variable

The variable that measures the outcome or response in an experiment.

Confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that could influence the dependent variable.

Sample

A method by which participants are selected for a study.

Population

All individuals sharing particular characteristics, considered for sampling.

Representative sample

A smaller group that accurately reflects the characteristics of a larger population.

Convenience Sample

A research sample chosen based on easy accessibility to the researcher.

Random Sample

A group that accurately depicts the population, covering diverse characteristics.

Sampling Bias

A situation where a sample is not representative of the larger population.

Generalizability

The extent to which study results can be applied to a broader population.

Experimental Group

Participants exposed to the independent variable being tested in a study.

Control Group

Participants not exposed to the independent variable, used for comparison.

Placebo

A fake treatment with no known medical effects.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental design where participants are unaware of their group assignment.

Double-Blind Procedure

When neither participants nor experimenters know who is in each group.

Experimenter bias

Unintentional influence on results due to researchers' expectations.

Social desirability bias

The tendency for participants to answer questions in a way that presents them favorably.

Structured interview

A method where each participant is asked the same set of questions in the same order.

Quantitative Research

Research using numerical data and statistical techniques to draw conclusions.

Likert scales

A scale measuring attitudes or opinions by indicating agreement or disagreement.

Representation

How our brain encodes information about people, objects, or events.

Peer review

A process where experts evaluate research before publication for quality and relevance.

Research ethics

Moral principles guiding psychologists in conducting research with participants.

Institutional review

A committee examining research proposals to ensure ethical guidelines are met.

Animal Research

Using non-human animals to study behavior and psychological principles ethically.

Informed Consent

Participants are provided necessary information to make voluntary decisions about study participation.

Informed Assent

Agreement from participants unable to give full consent, often minors, with understanding.

Harm in research

Negative impacts experienced by participants due to involvement in a study.

Confidentiality

Researchers must protect participants' privacy by not disclosing identifiable information.

Anonymity of data

Participants' identities remain unknown to researchers, ensuring privacy.

Deception

Misleading participants about a study's true purpose or procedures.

Research confederates

Individuals secretly working with researchers posing as regular participants.

Debrief

Informing participants post-study about its true purpose and any deception used.

Attribution

The process of assigning causes to someone's behavior.

Dispositional Attribution

Explaining behavior based on internal characteristics rather than external factors.

Situational Attribution

Explaining behavior based on external circumstances rather than internal traits.

Explanatory Style

A person's habitual way of interpreting events and attributing causes.

Optimistic explanatory style

Interpreting negative events as temporary and specific, attributing setbacks to external factors.

Pessimistic explanatory style

Interpreting negative events as personal, permanent, and pervasive.

Actor/Observer Bias

Attributing one’s own actions to external factors while attributing others' actions to internal traits.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating personal characteristics and underestimating situational influences in others' behavior.

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Internal Locus of Control

Belief in significant control over life events due to one's actions.

External Locus of Control

Belief in outside forces being primarily responsible for life outcomes.

Mere Exposure Effect

Developing preferences for things due to repeated exposure.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A belief or expectation that causes actions leading to the predicted outcome.

Social Comparison

Evaluating abilities and beliefs by comparing oneself to others.

Relative deprivation

Feeling worse off than others due to social comparisons.