2.1 The Atomic Theory

• According to the second hypothesis, atoms of one element vary from atoms of all other elements.

  • Dalton did not attempt to define the structure or composition of atoms since he had no concept of what an atom was.

• According to the third hypothesis, we require not only atoms of the proper kinds of elements, but also particular numbers of these atoms to build a certain molecule.

  • Proust's law of definite proportions asserts that various samples of the same compound always have the same mass proportion of constituent elements.

  • The law of numerous proportions is a law that states that there are multiple proportions.

  • If two elements can combine to produce more than one compound, according to the law, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in small whole-number ratios.

2.2 The Structure of the Atom

• An atom can be defined as the basic unit of an element that can be combined chemically.

• Many scientists got engrossed with the study of radiation in the 1890s, which involves the emission and transmission of energy over space in the form of waves.

• The negatively charged plate, termed the cathode, emits an invisible beam when the two metal plates are coupled to a high-voltage source.

2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

• The number of protons and neutrons in an atom can be used to identify it.

  • The number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element is known as the atomic number (Z).

  • The total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element is known as the mass number (A).

2.4 The Periodic Table

• Chemists have discovered that several elements have striking similarities.

  • The creation of the periodic table, a chart that groups together elements with comparable chemical and physical properties.

• According to similarities in chemical properties, they are arranged in horizontal rows called periods and vertical columns named groups or families.

• Metals, nonmetals, and metalloids are the three types of elements that can be found.

  • Metal conducts heat and electricity well, whereas a nonmetal does not.

  • A metalloid is a substance with qualities that are halfway between metals and nonmetals.

2.5 Molecules and Ions

• The majority of matter is made up of molecules or ions created by atoms.

  • A molecule is a defined arrangement of at least two atoms bound together by chemical forces.

• Because it only has two atoms, the hydrogen molecule, abbreviated as H2, is known as a diatomic molecule.

• More than two atoms make up the vast majority of compounds.

  • They can be single atoms of the same element, such as ozone (O3), which is made up of three oxygen atoms, or combinations of two or more elements.

  • Polyatomic molecules are molecules that have more than two atoms.

  • Water (H2O) and ammonia (NH3), like ozone, are polyatomic molecules.

  • An ion is a net positive or negative charged atom or a collection of atoms.

2.6 Chemical Formulas

• Chemists employ chemical formulas to express the chemical symbols that makeup molecules and ionic compounds.

  • The exact number of atoms of each element is the smallest unit of material is shown in a molecular formula.

  • An allotrope is a type of element that exists in two or more different forms.

• We can't see molecules because they're too small. The usage of molecular models is an excellent way of viewing them.

  • There are now two types of molecular models in use: ball-and-stick models and space-filling models.

• The structural formula, which depicts how atoms in a molecule are connected, is the first stage in creating a molecular model.

  • The empirical formula identifies the elements present and the atoms' simplest whole-number ratio.

• Bromide of potassium The ionic compound potassium bromide is made up of the potassium cation K+ and the bromine anion Br.

  • No subscripts are required because the sum of the charges is +1 + (1) = 0. KBr is the equation.

• Iodide of zinc. Zinc iodide is formed when the zinc cation Zn2+ and the iodine anion I interact with.

• The charges of one Zn2+ ion and one I ion add up to +2 + (1) = +1.

• We multiply the anion's 1 charge by 2 and add the subscript "2" to the symbol for iodine to make the charges sum up to zero. As a result, zinc iodide has the formula ZnI2.

  • Aluminum Oxide is a type of oxide of aluminum. Al3+ is the cation, and O2 is the oxygen anion.

2.7 Naming Compounds

• We must first distinguish between inorganic and organic compounds when naming chemical compounds.

  • Organic compounds are made up of carbon and other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur.

  • Inorganic compounds are the ones that aren't organic.

• Inorganic compounds include carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon disulfide (CS2), cyanide-containing compounds (CN), and carbonate (CO3 2),AMUthe d bicarbonate (HCO3) groups.

  • Many ionic compounds are binary compounds, meaning they are made up of only two elements.

• An acid is a chemical that, when dissolved in water, produces hydrogen ions (H+).

  • Acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and another element are known as oxyacids.

• A base is a material that, when dissolved in water, produces hydroxide ions (OH).

  • Hydrates are substances that contain a certain quantity of water molecules.

2.8 Introduction to Organic Compounds

• Hydrocarbons are the most basic organic molecules, containing solely carbon and hydrogen atoms.