Psychology Unit 1 - Unit 2.1 Vocabulary

• Cultural norms -  The shared expectations and rules that guide behavior within a social group

• Confirmation bias -  The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's existing beliefs, essentially prioritizing evidence that aligns with their viewpoint while ignoring or downplaying contradictory information. 

• Hindsight bias -  The tendency for people to believe, after an event has occurred, that they could have accurately predicted the outcome, essentially thinking "I knew it all along," even if they didn't have that knowledge beforehand; it's often described as the "knew-it-all-along" phenomenon.

• Overconfidence -  A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate their knowledge, abilities, or the accuracy of their judgments, leading them to believe they are more competent than they actually are, often resulting in underestimating risks and making poor decisions; essentially, thinking they know more than they do

• Experiment -  A research method where a researcher actively manipulates one variable (the independent variable) to observe its effect on another variable (the dependent variable), allowing them to establish a causal relationship between the two factors  random assignment is also a key to an experiment being considered an experiment

• Random assignment -  The process of allocating participants to different groups in an experiment using a chance procedure, ensuring that each participant has an equal likelihood of being placed in any group, thereby minimizing bias and allowing researchers to confidently attribute any observed differences to the manipulated variable (independent variable) rather than pre-existing participant

• Case Study -  A research design involving an in-depth and detailed examination of a single subject, or case, usually an individual or a small group.

• Correlational Study -  A research method where a researcher measures two or more variables and assesses the statistical relationship (correlation) between them, without actively manipulating any variables, to determine if there is a connection or pattern between them, but not necessarily proving causation

• Naturalistic Observation -  A research method where a researcher observes and records behavior as it occurs naturally in a real-world setting, without any manipulation or intervention from the observer, essentially watching individuals in their "natural habitat" to study their behavior without influencing it; this is often considered a field study rather than a lab experiment.

• Hypothesis -  A proposed, testable explanation for a phenomenon, often constructed in the form of a statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

• Falsifiable Hypothesis -  A hypothesis that can be proven false through observation or experimentation; essentially, it's a prediction that can be disproven by data, allowing for a scientific test where the results could potentially refute the initial idea. 

• Operational Definition -   A clear and specific description of a concept or variable in a study, outlining exactly how it will be measured or manipulated, essentially defining a construct in terms of the observable procedures used to quantify it; it ensures that researchers can replicate the study by providing precise details about how they are defining and measuring key variables.

• Replication -  The process of repeating a research study, often with different participants and situations, to see if the original findings can be consistently reproduced, thus validating the results and ensuring their reliability across various contexts; it's a crucial aspect of scientific research to establish the credibility of a study's findings.

• Independent variable -  The factor that a researcher actively manipulates or changes in an experiment to observe its effect on another variable, called the dependent variable; essentially, it's the "cause" that is being tested to see how it influences the "effect" (dependent variable) within the study. 

• Dependent variable -  The variable that measures the outcome of the experiment. This is the response. For example, if we are measuring which comedian makes the children laugh, then we will be measuring how many times the children laugh for the dependent variable.

• Confounding variable -  A factor other than the independent variable that could potentially influence the dependent variable in an experiment, making it difficult to determine whether the observed effects are truly due to the manipulation of the independent variable; essentially, it's a variable that is not controlled for and could skew the results of the study. 

• Sample -  The method by which participants are selected to be included in a study. A sample is a small portion of individual cases selected from a greater population. A population is every single person (or case) that shares a common characteristic.

• Population -  All individuals who share particular characteristics and can be considered as part of a larger group from which samples are drawn.

• Representative sample -  A smaller group of individuals selected from a larger population that accurately reflects the characteristics of that population, meaning the sample mirrors the demographics and traits present in the wider group being studied, allowing researchers to generalize their findings to the broader population with greater confidence. 

• Convenience Sample -  A research sample where participants are chosen based on their easy accessibility to the researcher, meaning they are readily available and convenient to access, rather than being selected randomly from the larger population, often leading to potential bias in the results; essentially, the researcher selects people who are simply "on hand" to participate. 

• Random Sample -  When the group of subjects in your experiment accurately depicts the population. This random sample should fairly depict the overall population, covering various ethnicities, socioeconomic classes, gender, and age.

• Sampling Bias -  A situation where a research sample is not representative of the larger population, meaning that certain members of the population are systematically more likely to be chosen for the study, leading to inaccurate results that cannot be generalized to the wider group. 

• Generalizability -  The extent to which the results of a study conducted on a specific sample can be applied to a broader population, meaning how well the findings can be generalized to people or situations beyond the original study participants; it's essentially a measure of how widely applicable the research conclusions are.

• Experimental Group -  The group of participants in a study who are exposed to the independent variable being tested, meaning they receive the treatment or condition being investigated while being compared to a control group that does not receive the treatment; this allows researchers to isolate the effects of the manipulated variable.

• Control Group -  A group of participants in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable being tested, allowing researchers to compare their results to the experimental group and isolate the effects of the manipulated variable on the dependent variable; essentially acting as a baseline for comparison to see if the experimental manipulation had a significant impact.

• Placebo -  A substance with no known medical effects, such as sterile water, saline solution or a sugar pill. In short, a placebo is a fake treatment that in some cases can produce a very real response.

• Single-Blind Procedure -  An experimental design where the participants are unaware of which group they are assigned to (experimental or control), but the researchers are aware, thus minimizing participant bias while the researchers still have knowledge of group assignments. 

• Double-Blind Procedure -  When neither the participant in the study nor the person giving the study knows who is the control group and who is in the experimental group. This allows the study to detect the Placebo Effect.

• Experimenter bias -  When a researcher unintentionally influences the results of their study due to their own expectations, beliefs, or behaviors, potentially skewing the data by subtly interacting with participants in a way that supports their desired outcome; essentially, the researcher's personal bias impacts the experiment's results. 

• Social desirability bias -  The tendency for research participants to answer questions in a way that portrays them in a positive light, often by giving responses they believe are socially acceptable, even if they are not entirely truthful about their opinions or behaviors; essentially, they respond to appear more favorable to others, potentially skewing the results of a study. 

• Structured interview -  A research method where every participant is asked the exact same set of questions in the same order, ensuring consistency in data collection and allowing for direct comparisons between respondents; essentially, it's a standardized interview format where questions are predetermined and presented uniformly to all interviewees. 

• Quantitative Research -  Research that uses operational measurements and statistical techniques to reach conclusions on the basis of numerical data, such as correlational studies and experiments.

• Likert scales -  A psychometric scale used to measure attitudes, opinions, or behaviors by asking respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements on a set scale, typically ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree," allowing researchers to quantify qualitative data on a person's perspective on a topic.

• Representation -  A mental image or concept that stands in for something else, essentially how our brain encodes and stores information about the world, including people, objects, and events, allowing us to understand and interact with them even when they are not physically present; it's often discussed in the context of cognitive psychology and concepts like mental models and prototypes.

• Peer review -  A process where experts in a field evaluate research studies or articles submitted for publication, assessing their quality, methodology, and relevance to the field before they are considered suitable for publication, essentially acting as a quality control mechanism to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information presented; "peer" signifies that the reviewers are other researchers with similar expertise in the same field. 

• Replication -  The process of repeating a research study, often with different participants and situations, to see if the original findings can be consistently reproduced, thus validating the results and ensuring their reliability across various contexts; it's a crucial aspect of scientific research to establish the credibility of a study's findings.

• Hypothesis -  Proposed, testable explanation for a phenomenon, often constructed in the form of a statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

• Falsifiable hypothesis -  A hypothesis that can be proven false through observation or experimentation; essentially, it's a prediction that can be disproven by data, allowing for a scientific test where the results could potentially refute the initial idea.

• Operational Definition -  A clear and specific description of a concept or variable in a study, outlining exactly how it will be measured or manipulated, essentially defining a construct in terms of the observable procedures used to quantify it; it ensures that researchers can replicate the study by providing precise details about how they are defining and measuring key variables.

• Replication -  The process of repeating a research study, often with different participants and situations, to see if the original findings can be consistently reproduced, thus validating the results and ensuring their reliability across various contexts; it's a crucial aspect of scientific research to establish the credibility of a study's findings.

• Directionality problem -  A limitation in correlational research where it is unclear which variable is causing the other, meaning you can't establish a causal relationship between two variables because the correlation could go either way; it could be X influencing Y or Y influencing X. 

• Third variable problem -  A situation where a seemingly correlated relationship between two variables is actually influenced by a third, unaccounted for variable, leading to a mistaken conclusion about causation; essentially, a confounding variable that affects both measured variables, making it appear as if there's a direct link between them when there isn't.

• Correlation -  The statistical relationship between two variables. If one variable changes, there tends to be a consistent change in the other variable too.

• Causation -  A direct cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, meaning that a change in one variable directly leads to a change in another variable; essentially, it establishes that one thing is the reason why something else happens, unlike mere correlation which only indicates a relationship between variables without proving cause and effect. 

• Qualitative Research -  A research method that collects non-numerical data, like descriptions, observations, and interviews, to understand subjective experiences and perspectives, rather than relying on measurable numbers and statistics; essentially, it focuses on the "quality" of data rather than the quantity, often using methods like case studies and open-ended questions to gain deep insights into a topic. 

• Structured interview - A research method where every participant is asked the exact same set of questions in the same order, ensuring consistency in data collection and allowing for easy comparison between responses from different individuals; essentially, it's a standardized interview format with predetermined questions and a fixed sequence.

• Quantitative Research -  Research that uses operational measurements and statistical techniques to reach conclusions on the basis of numerical data, such as correlational studies and experiments.

• Likert scales -  A psychometric scale used to measure attitudes, opinions, or behaviors by asking respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements on a set scale, typically ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree," allowing researchers to quantify qualitative data on a person's perspective on a topic. 

• Survey -  A research method where participants answer a set of questions to gather information about their attitudes, opinions, or behaviors, essentially collecting self-reported data from a group of people to assess a particular topic; it's considered a primarily quantitative method for gathering data from a representative sample of a population.

• Self-report bias -  The tendency for individuals to provide inaccurate or misleading information about their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors when reporting them themselves, often due to factors like social desirability or a lack of self-awareness, leading to potentially unreliable data in psychological research that relies on self-report methods like surveys or questionnaires

• Social desirability bias -  The tendency for research participants to answer questions in a way that portrays them in a positive light, often by giving responses they believe are socially acceptable, even if they are not entirely truthful about their opinions or behaviors; essentially, they respond to appear more favorable to others, potentially skewing the results of a study. 

• Peer review -  A process where experts in a field evaluate research studies or articles submitted for publication, assessing their quality, methodology, and relevance to the field before they are considered suitable for publication, essentially acting as a quality control mechanism to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information presented; "peer" signifies that the reviewers are other researchers with similar expertise in the same field.

• Replication -  The process of repeating a research study, often with different participants and situations, to see if the original findings can be consistently reproduced, thus validating the results and ensuring their reliability across various contexts; it's a crucial aspect of scientific research to establish the credibility of a study's findings.

1.5 Ethics

• Research ethics -  A set of moral principles that guide psychologists when conducting research, ensuring the safety, well-being, and informed consent of participants, while minimizing potential harm and upholding confidentiality, often based on guidelines set by the American Psychological Association (APA) code of ethics. 

• Institutional review -  A process where a committee called an "Institutional Review Board (IRB)" examines and approves research proposals involving human participants, ensuring the study adheres to ethical guidelines and protects the welfare of those involved by minimizing potential harm and upholding their rights.

• Animal Research -  The practice of using non-human animals as subjects in psychological experiments to study their behavior and understand underlying psychological principles, often with the goal of applying findings to human behavior, while adhering to ethical guidelines regarding animal welfare. 

• Informed Consent -  A research participant is given enough information about a study, including its purpose, procedures, potential risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw at any time, so they can make a voluntary decision about whether to participate.

• Informed Assent -  The process of gaining agreement from a participant who may not be legally able to give full informed consent, like a minor, to participate in a research study, where they are given clear information about the study in language they can understand and are allowed to express their willingness to participate, usually with parental consent also required.

• Harm in research -  Any negative impact or distress experienced by a participant as a result of their involvement in a study, including physical discomfort, emotional distress, embarrassment, or damage to their self-esteem, potentially arising from sensitive questions, experimental manipulations, or even the mere act of being observed in a research setting.

• Confidentiality -  The ethical principle that researchers must protect the privacy of participants by not disclosing any identifiable information about them without their consent, ensuring that only the researchers can link responses to individual participants in a study; essentially, keeping participant details private.

• Anonymity of data -  A researcher cannot identify the individual participants who provided the data, essentially meaning the participants' identities are completely unknown to the experimenter, ensuring privacy and potentially encouraging more honest responses on sensitive topics; it's a key ethical consideration in research.

• Deception -  The act of intentionally misleading research participants about the true purpose, conditions, or procedures of a study, by providing false information or withholding crucial details, to observe genuine reactions that might be altered if participants knew the full details of the experiment.

• Research confederates -  A person who is secretly working with the experimenter in a study, posing as a regular participant, but is actually following a scripted set of behaviors to manipulate the situation and observe the true participant's reactions; essentially, they are an actor in the experiment, unbeknownst to the real participants. 

• Debrief -  The process of informing research participants after a study is completed about the true purpose, procedures, and any deception used during the experiment, essentially giving them a full explanation of what they were involved in and why; it is considered an essential ethical practice in psychological research. 

Unit 2 - Social Psychology & Personality

1.1 Attribution Theory & Person Perception

Attribution -  The process of assigning a cause to someone's behavior, essentially deciding whether a person's actions are due to internal factors (like their personality) or external factors (like the situation they are in)

Dispositional Attribution -  The tendency to explain someone's behavior by attributing it to their internal characteristics, like personality traits, beliefs, or abilities, rather than considering external situational factors as the primary cause of their actions; essentially, blaming someone's behavior on their inherent disposition. 

Situational Attribution -  Explaining someone's behavior by attributing it to external factors or circumstances in the situation, rather than internal personality traits, essentially blaming the environment or context for their actions; it's considered an "external attribution.

Explanatory Style -  A person's habitual way of interpreting and explaining the causes of events in their life, particularly when faced with positive or negative situations, essentially describing how they attribute reasons for things that happen to them

Optimistic explanatory style -  A tendency to interpret negative life events as temporary, specific, and external factors, meaning that someone with this style attributes setbacks to outside influences, believing they are not permanent or pervasive, and are therefore more likely to bounce back from challenges compared to someone with a pessimistic explanatory style.

Pessimistic explanatory style -  A tendency to interpret negative events as being personal, permanent, and pervasive, meaning that when faced with setbacks, a person with this style attributes the cause to internal factors, believes it will last a long time, and sees it as affecting many areas of their life, often leading to feelings of helplessness and hopelessness.

Actor/Observer Bias -  The tendency for individuals to attribute their own behavior to external situational factors, while attributing the behavior of others to internal personality traits, essentially meaning people explain their actions differently than how they explain the same actions when observed in someone else

Fundamental Attribution Error -  The tendency for people to overestimate the influence of personal characteristics (dispositional factors) and underestimate the impact of situational factors when explaining someone else's behavior, essentially blaming someone's actions on their personality rather than the situation they are in.

Self-Serving Bias -  The tendency for individuals to attribute their successes to internal factors like their abilities or efforts, while blaming external factors like situations or others for their failures, essentially taking credit for positive outcomes and deflecting blame for negative ones, often to maintain a positive self-image.

Internal Locus of Control -  The belief that individuals have a significant degree of control over the events in their lives, meaning they attribute outcomes primarily to their own actions and efforts, rather than external forces like luck or fate

External Locus of Control -  The belief that outside forces, like luck, fate, or other people, are primarily responsible for the outcomes in one's life, meaning individuals attribute their successes and failures to external factors rather than their own actions or abilities.

Mere Exposure Effect -  The tendency for people to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them, meaning the more often someone is exposed to a stimulus, the more likely they are to like it, even if they are not consciously aware of this process happening

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy -  A belief or expectation about a future outcome that, due to the person's actions influenced by that belief, actually comes true, essentially causing the predicted behavior to manifest simply because the individual believes it will happen

Social Comparison -  The tendency for individuals to evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and beliefs by comparing themselves to others, often to gain a better understanding of their own standing relative to a group or social norm; this process can significantly influence self-esteem and self-perception.

Relative deprivation -  The feeling of being worse off than others in a comparable group, based on a comparison of one's own situation to the perceived situation of those around them, often leading to feelings of discontent and resentment, even if one's absolute situation is not objectively deprived; essentially, it's the perception of being deprived compared to others, even if one has a decent standard of living.