14.1 Consequences of Agricultural Practices

Altering the Environment

• Agricultural landscapes: A landscape resulting from the interactions between farming activities and a location's natural environment

• Some agricultural landscapes are long-standing, while others are constantly changing.

Shifting Cultivation

• The practice of shifting cultivation involves farming land until the soil is worn, and then leaving it to recover or using it for another purpose.

• This form of subsistence agriculture is primarily practices in peripheral and semi-peripheral countries.

  • South America, Central and West Africa, and Southeast Asia.

• This is different from crop rotation in that rotating crops maintains soil fertility; shifting cultivations wears the soil entirely.

• In theory, the soil is given time to recover, but if the farmer returns to the land too soon, it can have detrimental effects.

  • When the land does not have an adequate fallow (uncultivated) period, the result is soil degradation.

• Shifting cultivation is commonly practiced on a small scale by indigenous peoples.

• Shifting cultivation is one integral component within a complex agroecosystem.

• Agroecosystem: An ecosystem modified for agricultural use

• Some say that if shifting cultivation is replaced by intensive commercial agriculture, the negative environmental effects will be greater.

Slash and Burn

• Slash and burn farming is considered to be a kind of shifting agriculture.

• Slash and burn alters landscapes permanently, while other forms of shifting cultivation return regularly to cropland.

• This is mainly practiced in areas with tropical wet climates with dense vegetation.

• The method involves cutting and burning forests to create fields for crops.

  • The burn removes weeds, disease, and pests, while the ash layer provides nutrients that fertilize crops.

  • Within a few years, the soil will lose fertility and weeds return.

• When the soil is no longer usable, farmers move on to a new plot of land to repeat the process.

  • Sometimes the forest regenerates on abandoned fields.

• Slash and burn farmers generally live on marginal land in the tropical rain forests of Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

• Slash and burn contributes to numerous environmental problems, such as deforestation and soil erosion.

• Deforestation: Loss of forest lands

• Some argue that only about 7% of agriculture is slash and burn, and it can be sustainable if practiced only by small groups.

Terracing

• Terracing: The process of carving parts of a hill or mountainside into small, level growing plots

• This method is used in mountainous areas in various climates.

• Steps are built into the land and can create paddies for water-intensive crops like rice.

• Paddies flood during rainfall and water flows through the terraces without carrying soil down.

  • This preserves nutrients and leads to the growth of healthy crops.

• Although terracing is labor intensive, it is often part of a cultural heritage and everyone in the community participates.

  • Maintaining the terraces is critical in preventing dangerous runoff and mudslides.

Irrigation

• Humans have been using irrigation for millennia, most commonly in areas without dependable precipitation.

• Irrigation can affect surface landscapes in many ways.

  • Arid or semiarid landscapes have been transformed into green fields.

• Irrigation supports both small subsistence farms and major commercial agriculture operations.

• Reservoir: Artificial lake used to store water

  • Reservoirs are a common source of irrigation for crops in the U.S.

  • These artificial lakes are created by building dams across streams and rivers.

• Diverting water sources for irrigation can have negative impacts on existing bodies of water.

  • Water levels can drop, salinity rises, and fish populations suffer.

• Increasing agricultural demands threaten river and biodiversity health.

• Layers of underground sand, gravel, and rocks that contain and can release a usable amount of water are called aquifers.

  • Aquifer: Layers of sand, gravel, and rocks that contain and can release a usable amount of water

  • People tap into aquifers to access fresh water for both agriculture and household uses.

  • If not replenished by drainage through the soil, groundwater levels can fall or become completely depleted.

• The United Nations estimates that within the next few decades, the world will need to increase food production by 60 percent to support its growing population.

  • This will put pressure on aquifers and other water sources.

• If we want to avoid a water crisis, farmers will need to learn to better manage how much water is drawn for irrigation.

  • Some farmers have already begun using technology that helps them measure and gauge water use, slowing depletion.

Draining Wetlands

• Areas of land that are covered by or saturated with water are called wetlands.

• Wetland: Area of land that is covered by water or saturated with water

• Draining wetlands for farmland was historically acceptable because the lands were viewed as wasteland.

  • The soil cannot support construction or development, and provides a habitat for pests like mosquitos.

• Although possible, draining wetlands for farming results in a significant loss of habitat for fish, waterfowl, and mammals.

• Broader environmental issues have also resulted from the loss of wetlands.

  • They help reduce storm and flood damage

  • Improve water quality

  • Trap carbon dioxide

• More than half the original wetlands in the United States have been lost, largely due to drainage for agricultural purposes.

Pastoral Nomadism

• Like shifting cultivation, pastoral nomadism is an extensive practice and generally a form of subsistence agriculture.

• Pastoral nomads are herders who move their animals seasonally for the best grazing.

  • They tend to be in areas where crop cultivation is difficult or impossible.

• Traditionally, pastoral nomadism includes practices of preservation such as rotating razing zones, limiting clustered populations, and conserving for the dry season.

• When executed poorly, pastoral nomadism can have serious consequences for the environment.

  • Overgrazing can cause land degradation.

• Desertification: A form of land degradation that occurs when soil deteriorates to a desert-like condition

• Herds may favor some plants over others, affecting biodiversity.

• Biodiversity: The variety of organisms living in a location

• When grazing is concentrated on mountain slopes, soil erosion can result.

• As with other traditional agricultural practices, pastoral nomadism has evolved and is under threat in some places.

Environmental Consequences

• All agricultural practices have an impact on the environment.

• When farmlands and water resources are overused, negative consequences occur.

Pollution

• However a field receives its water, water running off farmland has environmental consequences, even for far-off lands.

• Runoff may contain chemicals and foreign nutrients, as well as bacteria and disease.

  • Many things in runoff can harm the ecosystem.

Land Cover Change

• Land cover change is how the surface of the land is altered by different land uses.

  • In terms of agriculture, humans transform Earth’s surface for growing food.

• The environmental consequences of land cover change can be difficult to remedy.

  • For example, terraced farming creates dramatic agricultural landscapes on slopes too steep for other practices.

  • A frequent problem with terraced farming is groundwater saturation, hindering the land’s ability to absorb more water.

  • Massive labor is required to properly maintain terraces.

    • If allowed to deteriorate, soil erosion can be severe and cause catastrophic mudslides.

• Deforestation caused by slash and burn agriculture is also a land cover change.

  • Logging is the biggest driver of deforestation, but poor farming practices are not free of guilt.

Soil Salinization

• Irrigation, too, can lead to short-term and long-term environmental damage.

• Salinization: The process by which water-soluble salts build up in the soil, which limits the ability of crops to absorb water

  • Salinization occurs in arid and semiarid regions when water evaporates from the ground more rapidly than it is replenished.

  • When salt accumulates near roots, plants cannot extract adequate water, reducing crop yield.

Desertification

• When water consumption significantly exceeds replenishment, desertification can occur, a permanent form of land degradation.

• Poor pastoral nomadism, stationary herds, deforestation, and clearing land can all contribute to desertification.

• The areas most vulnerable to desertification are those with low or variable rainfall.

Conservation and Sustainability Efforts

• Governments and organizations worldwide are addressing negative effects of agriculture through a variety of efforts.

  • Many focus on conservation, which involves managing and protecting natural resources to prevent their depletion.

• Conservation initiatives often use laws or education to encourage farmers to modify their practices.

• Given the diversity of agriculture, ecosystems, and political systems, these plans and policies vary greatly.

• Nongovernmental groups also help with with these efforts.

  • Some efforts have been met with mixed success.

• Debt-for-nature swap: Agreement between a bank and a peripheral country in which the bank forgives a portion of the country’s debt in exchange for local investment in conservation measures

Commercial Farming

• In areas where commercial agribusiness dominates agriculture, conservation efforts aim to reducing air pollution, using water better, and minimizing toxins seeping into groundwater.

  • Often, plans involve financial incentives for farmers to incorporate more sustainable practices in their farm operations.

• In some parts of the world, small-scale commercial farming is also benefiting from targeted conservation efforts.

Subsistence Farming

• Policy makers in areas where subsistence agriculture is common are recognizing the need to preserve soil fertility, prevent erosion, while also increasing yields.

• Many of the same sustainable practices applied to commercial farming can also be used in subsistence agriculture.

  • While commercial farmers can be motivated by greater profits, subsistence farmers are more focused on survival.

  • They have less financial means and access to information.

• Subsistence farmers may need different types of support in terms of education and resources to implement new techniques.

Societal Consequences

• Societal consequences of agricultural practices are broad and varied.

• Consumers in many countries have altered their diet and lifestyle choices due to recent agricultural innovations.

  • These individuals are concerned about environmental harm from crops that require large amounts of inputs.

• Some are worried about yet unfound effects of GMOs, so they purchase organically grown foods.

  • Many believe organic goods are better for the environment and their bodies.

• Organic farming has a focus on not using artificial chemical inputs.

• In many countries, longstanding agriculture and traditions have profoundly influenced both diets and social customs.

• The roles of women in farming vary tremendously across regions and agriculture types.

  • Women who are pastoral nomads have equal responsibility for the animals as men, but are more likely to be in charge of dairy animals or poultry.

  • In aquaculture, women work both as entrepreneurs and as laborers.

• In most countries, women in agriculture face gender discrimination.

  • With changes in practices and opportunities, the role of women in many types of farming is changing rapidly.

• The economic purpose of farms has been changing as well since the Industrial Revolution, having societal consequences.

  • Because of the shift to commercial agriculture, countries like the U.S. saw a loss of small and mid-sized farms.

  • The loss of small farms can harm the social and economic fabric of rural communities.

• Critics of agribusiness point to these faults.

• The rise of monocropping has also had societal consequences in the United States.

  • Monocropping poses risks to the livelihoods of farmers.

    • The lack of diversity in crops can cause prices to be turbulent.

• The recent trend of consumer diets has been benefitting small and mid-size farms.

  • These diet choices encourage small farmers to consider switching to organic production.

14.2 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture

Debates over Innovations

• Innovations have benefits that include better quality and higher production, but they remain a point of controversy.

• One key concern is sustainability.

  • Farmers must manage the environment in a way that limits damaging pollution.

  • They must also turn a profit, which may require many inputs.

• Some say new innovations are moving towards sustainability, but others are skeptical.

• A balance needs to be reached between environmentally sustainable and economically effective.

Biotechnology and GMOs

• The use of genetic modification (GM) is not new, farmers have been improving plants through selective breeding for thousands of years.

• Biotechnology: The science of altering living organisms, often through genetic manipulation, to create new products for specific purposes, such as crops that resist certain pests

• Supporters argue that the revolution in biotechnology can solve world hunger problems.

  • It can cause increased yields, resistance to threats, and improved nutrition.

• But some raise the question: How much genetic modification is too much?

• One potential benefit of genetic engineering is a reduction in the cost of food production.

• Those who question the advantages of biotechnology feel its environmental impacts have not been thoroughly investigated.

  • The long-term effects of genetic alterations are still unknown.

  • Foods modified through genetic modification/engineering have been banned in much of Europe because of uncertainty around their safety.

• Another debate on modern agriculture is about biodiversity, and whether biotechnology helps or harms the diversity of species.

• Agricultural biodiversity: The variety and variability of plants, animals, and microorganisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture

  • Agricultural biodiversity is integral to environmentally sustainable agriculture.

  • It enables agriculture to achieve productivity gains, improve sustainability, and manage changing conditions.

• Critics claim that genetic engineering poses a threat to agricultural biodiversity.

• Innovations may actually make problems worse.

  • When genetic measures are taken to make crops resistant to weeds, for example, weeds eventually adapt.

  • The weeds, temporarily quelled, adapt and come back after some time.

  • This then requires even more action.

• Another risk is that genetically modified crops may transfer genetic material into unmodified plants.

  • When giving a herbicide-resistant gene to crops, that gene may spread to the weeds themselves.

  • The weeds are then herbicide-resistant themselves and a new problem has been made.

• Genetically modified organisms may escape and threaten surrounding biodiversity by becoming invasive and crowding out wild species.

• Soil fertility is another concern.

  • Generally, soil fertility has decreased with the intensification of food production.

  • The land’s productivity is lessened or threatened as a result.

  • This leads to farmers applying more synthetic fertilizers to keep up with the growing demand.

• Supporters and opponents also disagree on the use of GE crops to conserve water.

  • There are similar concerns in that there may be unintended biological effects on local plant communities.

• Economically, the cost of using new technologies may put many farmers in tremendous debt.

  • If their yield isn’t enough or if prices drop too much, they may never be able to pay the debts off.

• Due to biotechnology’s high cost, its use is often limited to agribusinesses.

Aquaculture

• Aquaculture is an innovative branch of agriculture that has demonstrated advantages in many ways.

  • This type of fish farming needs less space and care and represents one of the fastest growing food production sectors.

• This is an alternative to natural fisheries and can provide large and consistent amounts of fish.

  • It has helped meet global demands and created jobs.

• Algae is also being used as a possible energy alternative to fossil fuels.

• Aquaculture offers environmental benefits as well.

  • The farming of shellfish, which filter water in their feeding process, can increase water quality.

• Concerns about aquaculture include pollution from used chemicals and an excess in fish waste.

  • Aquaculturalists use antibiotics on their fish which harm the ecosystem.

  • Native gene pools may also be compromised if farmed fish and native fish breed.

Food Choice

• Food preference and dietary shift are important motivators of changes in contemporary agriculture.

  • People may choose food for its health benefits, sustainability, or to support independent farmers.

• Participants in food choice movements are enthusiastic about their benefits, but there is debate over the real impact.

Local Food Movements

• In the US, some consumers are employing new ways to acquire fresh food.

  • Urban farming, for example, converts vacant areas into spaces for growing produce.

• Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) involves consumers purchasing shared in the output of a local farm.

  • During the growing season they receive a weekly box of produce from the farm.

  • In return, farmers who operate CSAs receive guaranteed income.

• There are drawbacks: Not all CSAs are profitable, and urban farms typically do not reach large populations.

• Local food movements aim to connect food producers and consumers in the same region.

  • These can be farmers markets or farm-to-table restaurants.

Organic Farming

• Organic farming has seen a rise in popularity in some areas, in part as a response to concerns about chemical inputs and GMOs.

  • These practices are more expensive, but consumers have proven willing to spend extra for organic food.

• Instead of using artificial inputs, organic farmers use natural fertilizers and crop rotation techniques.

  • Organic farmers attempt to reduce or eliminate external agricultural inputs and strive for sustainability.

• Not everyone agrees that avoiding GMOs by buying organic or through other means is a healthier option.

  • Many experts insist that modified foods pose no danger to consumers.

Fair Trade and Value-Added Crops

• Another type of production driven by consumer choice is fair trade.

• In the interest of supporting sustainability and quality of life for farmers, many are willing to pay more.

• Food choice often to value-added specialty crops: Organic or other crops that are modified from their original state to a more valuable one.

  • Coffee, tea, and chocolate are all value-added crops.

• As food production has become more efficient, the possibilities of value-added agriculture have increased.

• Being able to meet consumer demands can lead to more profit, but that comes at a cost.

  • Consumer demands may entice farmers to cultivate value-added crops, but the farmers must also invest more for them.

Dietary Shifts

• Broader global trends in diets may weight the heaviest on agriculture.

• The global demand for all meats is growing, for example, so need for grain to feed livestock is rising.

• A growing international appetite for processed food products also impacts growers’ choices of crops.

Agriculture and Diet

• Food choices affect agriculture, but the reverse is also true.

• Contemporary agricultural practices have changed diets around the world.

• Increased innovation has expanded the amount of foods available to people globally.

14.3 Feeding the World

Food Insecurity

• Food security: Reliable access to safe and nutritious food that can support an active and healthy lifestyle

• Food insecurity: The disruption of food intake or eating patterns because of poor access to food

• The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that in 2018, about 26% of the population experienced at least moderate food insecurity.

• FAO also states that more than 820 million people do not have access to enough food to lead a healthy, active life.

• The planet does produce enough food to feed everyone, but a global food supply does not solve regional problems.

Global Food Insecurity

• It has been found that much food insecurity is the result of distribution issues and economic decisions.

• Another serious threat to Earth’s ability to continue producing sufficient food is adverse weather, caused or intensified by climate change.

  • More than 80 percent of food-insecure people in the world live in areas susceptible to such extreme weather events.

• Instability and chronic poverty also contribute to food insecurity.

• The loss of agricultural land to urban areas is another threat to food production.

• Suburbanization: The shifting of population away from cities into surrounding suburbs

• The impact of urban growth on agriculture has been highly debated.

  • Some argue it is negative, citing the reduction of arable land and the declining ratio of food producers to food consumers.

  • Others claims that because of food globalization, urban growth has little impact on ability to meet food demands.

Food Issues in the United States

• Like other countries, the United States is losing farmland to urban development.

  • As suburbs grow, more land goes to that purpose and is taken from small-scale family farms.

• In many low-income areas of the United States food insecurity is an ongoing concern.

• Poverty and food insecurity are closely linked, but are not always perfectly connected.

  • The cost of living compared to wages earned and other factors, such as medical expenses, can affect food security.

Hunger and Conflict

• About 60% of the world’s hungry live in countries affected by war.

  • Conflict is one of the key factors affecting food security and nutrition.

• In some instances, warring parties have used food as a weapon.

  • They have deliberately denied it for people associated with the opposition.

• In many cases, food distribution is inadequate because political systems are flawed.

• People living in areas torn by fighting have few food options.

  • Humanitarian workers attempting to provide food relief often face violence themselves.

Economic Impacts on Food Production

• One of the factors that contributes to food insecurity is poor distribution.

  • Effective distribution systems connect producers to consumers and allocate food to meet needs.

• There are challenges in deciding on distribution, who makes those decisions, and the employed methods.

  • Complex social and economic factors often prevent consumers who need food most from getting it.

Storage and Transportation Issues

• Farms, food-processing, and markets are often considerable distances from one another.

  • In some places, however, supply chains are much shorter, existing within a single country or region.

  • Even short supply chains can break down due to poor storage, processing, transportation, or infrastructure.

• Poor infrastructure in many peripheral countries means that food often cannot be transported to those that need it.

  • The FAO calculates that 25% of the world’s calories are lost or wasted.

• By improving rural infrastructure, governments can strengthen the ability to reduce waste and increase food access.

Economy of Scale

• Economy of scale: The reduced cost of producing food items as the quantity of production increases

• If fixed costs are spread over many units of production, the return on investment is greater because the fixed costs remain the same.

  • The concept shows that large-scale farming is more efficient.

  • The average cost of production decreased as the farm size increases.

• Economy of scale offers a good way to think about how to best use resources to meet needs.

• Almost every aspect of modern agriculture favors large-scale farming because as quantity of units produced increases, cost per unit goes down.

• Economy of scale also indirectly affects the way food is distributed.

• To make the best use of technology, larger farms are less diverse as farmers focus on one or two crops.

  • These farms also have access to more far-reaching distribution networks.

• Small farms may struggle more when prices are low due to lower yields and less connections.

  • Many small-scale farmers choose to grow specialty crops in the hopes that the higher prices will cover costs and produce profit.

Government Policies

• In the United States, the rise of large-scale farming has led to corporate landholders controlling most of the country’s arable land.

  • In 2017, the USDA reported that the largest farms account for less than one percent of all farms but 35% of all sales.

  • The largest commercial farms receive the majority of the ~$20 billion in annual farm subsidies.

• Such policies have the power to distort decisions made by farm businesses by encouraging overproduction and discouraging diversification.

  • Farmers often feel they must choose to grow the crops that are the most cost-effective.

  • Farms may also shift to produce profit-making crops instead of those that will limit food insecurity.

Fighting the Problem

• In many core economies, conscious diets are becoming popular as a way to help solve the hunger crisis.

  • Some consumers made dietary choices with both global and personal consequences in mind.

  • A large-scale shift to less meat-intensive diets could have considerable impact on the availability of food.

    • Changing diets in wealthier countries has the potential to free up more croplands to grow food.

• The next step is creating infrastructure to ensure that the food reaches those who need it.

• Much relies on governments, but consumers and their purchasing power can also help transform the global food system.

14.4 Women in Agriculture

A Variety of Roles

• Women produce more than 50% of the world’s food and make up 43% of the agricultural labor force.

  • Most working women in peripheral countries labor for agriculture, and a third of US farmers are female.

• Women’s roles in agriculture vary widely across the world.

  • As agriculture changes because of technology, science, and economic or social pressures, so too do the role of women.

  • In peripheral countries, women are largely limited to participation in subsistence agriculture.

  • Opportunities to transition to commercial farming can be limited by gender bias.

• The most difficult gendered challenge that women face is the lack of land rights.

  • Only 10 to 20 percent of landholders in peripheral countries are women.

• If a female farmers does not own the land she works, she doesn’t have the legal backing to make decisions about it.

  • In some areas, legal rights exist on paper but are disregarded in practice.

• Women in agriculture also face obstacles when attempting to conduct the business of farming.

  • In some countries, even unspoken roles can be rigid and keep women from taking their crops to market.

  • Some countries block women from taking out loans, which means they cannot invest in inputs.

  • In many places, women in agriculture experience difficult working conditions and a poor quality of life.

• Family farms are central to food security, but they are also the main institutions where women work unpaid and unrecognized.

• The United States provides examples of the varied and changing roles women play in agriculture.

  • In 2017, the USDA reported that 36% of the country’s producers involved in decision-making were female.

  • According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, women farmers, ranchers, and managers exceeded the earnings of their male counterparts in the same year.

  • Female ranchers are also leading the way in practicing sustainable ranching.

• While American female farmers may not face the same hardships as foreign women, obstacles still exist to their equal participation in agriculture.

• Alongside changing roles in food production and distribution, women’s roles in food consumption have also changed.

  • Traditionally, women cooked for the household. This is still true today, but as more women enter the workforce, the tend to cook regularly less.

  • Families have begun eating out more and their dietary choices have changed because of this trend.

Empowering Rural Women

• In farming, empowerment can mean having the ability to make decisions about the farm, control of finances, or other liberties.

• Empowering women in the agricultural sector has the potential to bring significant benefits to many people and groups.

  • Children will receive better nutrition and education when their mother’s incomes increase.

  • Communities will benefit when women can spend money on schooling and other resources.

  • Empowering female farmers may help improve food security for millions.

• According to the FAO, if rural women had the same access to technology as men, agricultural productivity would increase by 20 to 30 percent.