3.1 How did the rise of extremism affect international relations?

Background of the wall street crash 1929

The US economy, seemingly so strong and influential, collapsed in 1929.

-American industries were heavily dependent on the export market, their output vastly exceeding what could be sold within the USA itself.

-The USA practised protectionism, imposing high taxes on foreign imports in order to protect its own industries from competition. This effectively prevented other countries from making profits by selling their goods within the USA.

-Without such profits, these countries were increasingly unable to afford American products.

-In retaliation, some countries began to impose high taxes on American imports. As a result, foreign demand for American goods fell.

-As investors realised the potential implications of this, they rushed to sell their shares, creating a panic on the New York stock exchange on Wall Street.

-By 29 October 1929 - 'Black Friday' - shares in hundreds of businesses had become worthless. T

housands of American citizens were financially ruined. Many banks were forced to close down as people rushed to withdraw their savings. This was the Wall Street Crash.

The Great Depression that followed affected not just the USA, but the whole world.

Effect of the depression on America

-As demand for American products fell, manufacturers began to produce less. This meant that many workers lost their jobs at a time when there was no unemployment benefit.

-As more and more families were forced to reduce their spending, the demand for goods fell still further, leading to even more unemployment.

-This vicious circle continued, spiralling the USA deeper and deeper into an economic depression that lasted until the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.

Effect of depression on other countries

-Other countries were soon affected, largely because their prosperity was dependent on American loans.

-As soon as the crash came, the loans stopped.

-The German economy immediately collapsed and Germany was no longer able to make reparation repayments.

-This, in turn, affected Britain, France and Italy, which relied on reparations to repay their own debts to the USA and to maintain their economic stability.

effect of the great depression (economic problems)

As international trade declined, all industrialised countries suffered from the same economic problems.

-Spiralling deflation affected Europe and Japan alike. High unemployment quickly followed, leading to social unrest.

-Everywhere, the threat of revolution seemed greater than ever before. It is in such circumstances that political extremism thrives.

-As poverty and hardship increased, the poor became disenchanted with elected governments, which they believed to be incapable of solving their problems, or were even responsible for them.

- Instead they adopted extremist political ideas, such as those of the communists and the fascists.

-At the same time, many middle-class people grew increasingly concerned about the adverse effects of social disorder and the threat of revolution on their livelihoods. They sought governments capable of restoring order and protecting their interests.

Rise of fascist and communist organisations in the 1930s

-Even in countries with well-established forms of constitutional government, such as Britain, France and the USA, support for fascist and communist organisations grew during the 1930s. In these countries, democracy was able to survive.

-However, in countries that lacked a strong democratic tradition, such as Germany, Japan and Spain, democratic forms of government collapsed.

The great depression and hitlers rise to power.

-The impact of the Great Depression on political extremism is most clearly evident in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany.

- As just one more unemployed soldier with a limited education and little hope of finding employment, Hitler seemed an unlikely political leader.

-However, his skill in delivering frenzied, almost hypnotic, speeches gained him a small following, and by 1921 he had become the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazis).

-To begin with, its members were mainly unemployed youths and soldiers returning from the First World War. Disenchanted and with little hope for the future, these men might have turned to communism, but instead they were drawn to Hitler's magnetic speeches. In spite of the falsity of his arguments, many people found the simplicity of them appealing.

Hitler's view on germany's democratic post war Weimar constitution

-Hitler was heavily critical of Germany's democratic post-war Weimar constitution. With so many political parties, he argued, none of them could gain an overall majority in elections, leading to weak governments and the growing threat of communist revolution.

-He claimed that politicians had betrayed the country by seeking peace when Germany could still have won the First World War. These same politicians had agreed to the humiliating Treaty of Versailles, which, he stressed, was the cause of all Germany's post-war problems.

Munich Putsch

Well organised and violent gangs of Nazi supporters, known as Stormtroopers, attacked the meetings of rival political parties, and in 1923 the Nazi Party attempted a 'national revolution,' which is referred to as the Munich Putsch. This was easily put down, and Hitler was arrested and sentenced to prison.

Hitler's success hindered by a prosperous Germany

-Upon his release, Hitler found Germany somewhat revitalised. American loans under the Dawes Plan (1924) had helped to stabilise the economy, and Germany was forging better relations with other European nations through the Locarno Treaties.

-While this was good for the country, it did not bode well for Hitler's future success. With the situation improving in Germany, there would be less support for a political party built on extremist views. In the May 1928 elections, the Nazi Party gained only 810 000 votes out of the 31 million cast.

The Wall Street crash in aiding Hitler's rise to power

-It was the Wall Street Crash and the ensuing worldwide depression that breathed new life into Hitler's political career. American loans, on which Germany's new prosperity was entirely dependent, suddenly stopped.

- The country was plunged back into a period of economic chaos and massive unemployment.

-Support for the Nazis began to grow, and in the elections of 1932 the Party gained 37% of the total votes cast. Although they still did not have an overall majority in the Reichstag (the German parliament), the Nazis had become the largest single party. On 30 January 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany.

Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany

-Hitler had become Chancellor of Germany through legal and constitutional means, by exploiting the very weaknesses within the German constitution that he had criticised so vehemently. Once in the position of chancellor, it did not take Hitler long to remove all political opposition, end the constitution through which he had been elected and establish the Third Reich.

-Germany became a one-party, totalitarian state founded on extreme nationalism and the use of violence to maintain order and obedience. If Mussolini had established the world's first fascist state in Italy, Hitler had created the second.

Impact of the rise of dictatorships on relations between powers

-By 1933, four of the world's leading nations - Italy, the USSR, Germany and Japan - were governed by dictatorships through which the state controlled all aspects of life.

-These dictatorships maintained popular support by the extensive use of censorship and propaganda, crushing opposition through control over the armed forces.

-This clearly had an enormous impact on the lives of people living in those countries, but it also had an adverse effect on international relations.

-Tensions between the major powers, which had been gradually reduced during the 1920s, were renewed in the wake of the Great Depression and the establishment of dictatorships.

Nazism in Germany

-Hitler's rise to power was a major cause of concern across Europe.

-Although the issue of reparations had caused friction with other countries, particularly France, Germany had gradually developed better foreign relations during the late 1920s. This was particularly evident at the Locarno Conference in 1925, and culminated in Germany being admitted to the League of Nations the following year.

-It was evident that Hitler had no intention of continuing the policies that had made this possible. He had been making his views very clear since the early 1920s - he wanted Germany to be restored to its rightful position as a major European power and, in particular, to destroy the Treaty of Versailles. Such views were enormously popular in Germany.

Nazism in Germany (and what it meant for France)

-While Hitler's statements were popular in Germany, they caused great alarm elsewhere in Europe.

-The French were particularly concerned.

-They had consistently aimed to keep Germany weak as a safeguard against any future German attack against France.

- A rearmed and powerful Germany would pose a threat to French security. In the late 1920s, France had been willing to compromise and develop friendly relations with Germany.

-With Hitler's rise to power, France reverted to the hard-line approach towards Germany that it had adopted in the period from 1919 to 1924.

Nazism in Germany (and what it meant for Italy)

-Italy also had reason to fear Hitler's intentions, particularly his desire to form a union between Germany and Austria.

-One of Mussolini's major concerns was the post-First World War weakness of Austria. As a neighbouring nation, Austria's lack of political, economic and military strength meant that it would provide Italy with little protection should Germany regain its power and show signs of aggression.

-Indeed, a revival of German military strength and ambition seemed increasingly likely when Hitler's Nazi Party gained power.

-Consequently, Mussolini provided support to the anti-Nazi Austrian government of Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. When Dollfuss was murdered by Austrian Nazis in July 1934, Mussolini sent Italian troops to the border to prevent a suspected German invasion of Austria.

- Italy's actions were heavily praised in France and Britain, which increasingly viewed Mussolini as a vital ally against Hitler's Germany.

Nazism in Germany (and what it meant for the USSR)

-Stalin's Russia also had reason to be concerned by Hitler's rise to power.

-As the only communist country, Russia felt both isolated and vulnerable. Its only formal alliance was that with Germany, which began with the Treaty of Rapallo in 1922.

-In view of the German Nazi Party's strongly anti-communist views, this relationship was now under threat. So too was Russian security.

-While in prison following the failed 'national revolution' in 1923, Hitler had written Mein Kampf (My Struggle), a book in which he outlined his political philosophy. In this book, Hitler argued that the German population was too large for the boundaries in which it was constrained. His stated solution was Lebensraum (living space), whereby Germany would take land in the east to provide more space for the expanding German population.

-The implication was clear - Hitler's long-term intention was to take land from both Poland and the USSR.

Stalin's attempt to ensure the security of the USSR against hitler's germany

-In an attempt to ensure the security of the USSR against Hitler's Germany, Stalin consistently tried to secure agreements with Britain and France.

-His attempts failed. Amid the social and economic chaos of the Great Depression, political stability was under threat in both Britain and France.

-Extremist political parties were growing in popularity, and revolution seemed a distinct possibility.

-Under these circumstances, the British and French governments viewed Stalin's communist Russia with distrust and fear. Indeed, most British politicians saw Stalin's Russia as a bigger threat than Hitler's Germany.

Military dictatorship in Japan

-Increased international tension resulting from the rise of dictatorships was not confined to Europe.

-In countries that lacked a strong democratic tradition, existing forms of government found it impossible to cope.

- In Japan, a democratic form of government had only existed since 1889. Accustomed to a system in which the emperor held supreme power, the Japanese people had little respect for parliamentary democracy. They believed that politicians were weak, corrupt and open to bribery.

-As unemployment and poverty grew alarmingly following the Wall Street Crash, the Japanese blamed the elected government for their misfortunes.

-With social unrest increasing, the armed forces took control and the country became a military dictatorship.

Japanese dictatorship and the collapse of democracy

-In September 1931, against the wishes of Japan's elected government, elements of the Japanese army had mobilised and taken control over the whole of Manchuria, part of China.

- This event led to the collapse of the Japanese democracy. With the democratically elected government unable to control Japan's armed forces, Emperor Hirohito replaced it with a government of National Unity under Admiral Makoto Saitō.

Japan had become a military dictatorship, with the clear intention of further expansion in Asia. This caused great concern in a weak, unstable and vulnerable China, but it also threatened the regional interests of European nations and the USA.

Military dictatorship in Japan and anti-comintern

-In November 1936, Japan formed an alliance with Germany, known as the Anti-Comintern Pact.

-The Comintern, which had been established by the USSR's Bolshevik government to encourage worldwide communist revolution, was perceived as a threat by the governments of both Germany and Japan.

- In theory, the Anti-Comintern Pact was a defensive alliance, the governments of Germany and Japan agreeing to provide mutual support in the event of any future attack on either of them by the USSR

international reactions to the Anti-comintern pact

-the union of two dictatorships, both following aggressive foreign policies, inevitably caused suspicion and concern internationally.

-The fact that Germany formally recognised Japan's control over Manchuria, thereby legitimising Japanese aggression, added to these concerns.

-The situation became even more intimidating in 1937, when a third dictatorship, that of Mussolini's Italy, joined the Anti-Comintern Pact.

-The alliance of three dictatorships, all ideologically opposed to communism and all following aggressive foreign policies, posed an obvious threat to the USSR.

-It also caused alarm in Britain, France and the USA, which perceived the Pact as a direct threat both to international peace and their own democratic institutions. Indeed, by the end of 1937, US President Roosevelt had concluded that the Pact's true intention was aimed at world domination.

Fascism in Italy background

-By 1934, Mussolini was widely respected abroad. He had fostered good relationships with Britain and France, played an important role at the Locarno Conference, and helped to prevent Hitler's designs on uniting Germany and Austria in 1934.

-However, in Italy little progress had been made towards

achieving the ambitious aims of which he had boasted when he came to power. Italy was neither 'great' nor 'feared'.

-As a result of the Great Depression, Italy was facing severe economic and social problems, and Mussolini's popularity with the Italian people was declining.

-Mussolini was in need of a propaganda boost, some spectacular overseas success that would reunite the people behind him.

-He had seen, and been increasingly impressed by, the way Hitler had set about challenging the Treaty of Versailles, and how this had increased his popularity in Germany. He also saw the weak response to Hitler's aggressive foreign policy by the League of Nations, in particular from Britain and France.

-Mussolini became increasingly convinced that there was more to be gained by a close relationship with Germany than with Britain and France.

Facism in Italy (They Abyssinian crisis)

-As a result, Mussolini completely reversed the thrust of his foreign policy.

-Rather than fearing and resisting the resurgence of German power, he began to support and, in many ways, imitate it.

- The diplomatic approach he had adopted between 1923 and 1934 was replaced by aggression and an even greater desire for glory.

- In 1935, therefore, Mussolini ordered Italian troops to invade Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia), one of the few parts of Africa not yet under European control. Hitler's Germany was the only major power that was not critical of this action.

-In 1936, Italy and Germany formed an alliance known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. In 1939, the terms of this alliance were extended in the Pact of Steel, a formal military alliance between Italy and Germany pledging mutual support in the event of war.

International reactions to the pact of Steel

-Elsewhere in Europe, the Pact of Steel was interpreted as evidence that Germany and Italy were preparing for war. Feeling particularly threatened, the USSR sought closer relations with Britain and France.

-However, the British and French governments, still fearing the spread of communism and believing the USSR to be an untrustworthy ally, were not prepared to commit to any formal alliance with the Soviets.

-While deeply concerned about the possible implications of the Pact of Steel, neither Britain nor France felt in a position to take any action against it.

the Great Depression and dictatorships on international tensions

-The combined effects of the Great Depression and the development of aggressive dictatorships completely destabilised international relations during the 1930s.

-Events in Spain were soon to highlight the potentially serious implications of this.

the civil war in Spain

-As in Japan and Germany, democracy was a victim of the Great Depression in Spain. Since 1885, Spain had been governed under the constitutional monarchy of King Alfonso XIII. This had never been a particularly efficient system, and it came under increasing threat as a result of major political divisions within the country. Many different political groups emerged, each wanting different things.

political parties in Spain and what each wanted

-Monarchists wanted to preserve the power of the king and the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. Their position was weakened by the fact that there were two different monarchist parties, the Bourbonists and the Carlists, supporting two different branches of the royal family.

-Liberals wanted reform in order to create a modern democracy such as that found in Britain. They argued that the powers enjoyed by the king and, especially, the Church should be reduced.

-Socialists wanted more extensive and more rapid social and economic reform than the Liberals. They argued that the state should take control of industrial and agricultural businesses so that everyone, and not just a few wealthy people, could benefit.

-Communists wanted a Russian-style revolution, involving the seizure of property, the abolition of all other political parties and the development of a classless society.

-Anarchists rejected all forms of authority, supporting a political philosophy that argued that there should be no government at all. Anarchists opposed unequal power relationships and exploitation, including those involving governments, employers and landowners. They advocated local associations that could form free associations with one another.

-Separatists wanted independence for their regions. Many Basques, Catalans, Andalusians, Aragonese and Castilians felt that preserving their regional identity was more important than showing allegiance to Spain as a country.

Rivera establishing himself as dictator.

-With so many political groups, each with contrasting aims, it became impossible for any elected government to provide Spain with effective leadership.

-Convinced of the need for strong and stable government, army officers, under the leadership of Don Miguel Primo de Rivera, carried out a bloodless coup in 1923.

-With the support of the king, parliamentary government was removed, and Rivera established himself as dictator with absolute power over the country, governing in the absence of elections and a formal constitution.

the Great Depression and the Spanish Civil war

-As the catastrophic social and economic effects of the Great Depression hit Spain, Rivera lost the support of the army and was forced to resign. With him went the period of stability that his dictatorship had provided. Spain was plunged into turmoil again. Fearing bloodshed, King Alfonso abdicated in April 1931, and the new Republic of Spain was proclaimed.

-This led to a period of political chaos, during which no single party was able to gain overall control within the Cortes (Spanish parliament).

-Right-wing groups (the Church, the army, wealthy landowners, industrialists and businessmen) formed a new party, the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA).

-At the same time, left-wing groups (socialists, communists and anarchists) unified in what became known as the Popular Front.

- It proved impossible for either the CEDA or the Popular Front to form an effective government capable of addressing Spain's social and economic problems. Social order collapsed, and Spain experienced a period of strikes, riots and acts of violence.

the Spanish civil war begins

-In July 1936, a leading right-wing politician, Calvo Sotelo, was killed by police. This convinced right- wing groups that a military dictatorship was the only way to overcome the escalating violence within Spain.

-On 17 July 1936, a group of army generals began a revolt in Morocco. General Francisco Franco was flown in from the Canary Islands to assume leadership of the conflict. Within a day, the revolt had spread to mainland Spain.

-The Spanish Civil War had begun. For three years, Spain was torn apart as Franco's right-wing Nationalists fought with the left-wing Republicans for control of the country. By 1939, the Nationalist victory was assured. Franco established a military dictatorship that incorporated elements of fascism.

-If the army had expected a rapid and straightforward seizure of power, it was bitterly disappointed. Many Spaniards were prepared to resist a military takeover.

-Anarchist trade unionists in Barcelona fought against and defeated the army insurgents, executing their leaders. The government in Madrid, in which the Popular Front held a majority, issued workers with guns, which allowed them to overcome local army regiments fighting for the Nationalists.

Franco appeals to Hitler and Mussolini about communist threat

-By the end of July 1936, Franco's Nationalists controlled much of northern Spain and the southern areas around Cadiz and Seville.

-The republicans controlled the centre and north-east of Spain, most significantly the major cities of Madrid and Barcelona.

-Realising that taking full control of Spain was going to prove difficult, Franco appealed to Hitler and Mussolini for assistance, claiming that he was fighting to prevent a communist revolution in Spain.

Germany and Italy's involvement in the Spanish civil war (1936-1939)

-Neither Hitler nor Mussolini had any real interest in Spain, but both could see the value of having a third fascist state in Europe, especially one that was situated on France's southern border.

-Consequently, from the outset of the Civil War, both Germany and Italy covertly supplied Franco with military equipment and troops.

-Their involvement in what was basically a private Spanish affair was to have a major impact on international relations.

international reactions to the Spanish civil war

-Public opinion in the democratic states of Britain, France and the USA was divided.

-While some people saw Franco as yet another brutal fascist dictator determined to seize power, others perceived him as a vital bulwark against the spread of communism.

-However, when the republican government of Spain asked for British and French assistance against Franco, politicians in those countries adopted a more pragmatic approach.

-Desperate to avoid any action that might provoke Germany, Britain and France encouraged the League of Nations to establish a Non-Intervention Committee. This was intended to ensure that no foreign aid entered Spain.

-Germany and Italy joined the Committee, but both ignored it. Denied British and French assistance, the republicans turned to the only country that seemed prepared to help - the USSR.

By the end of 1936, therefore, the Civil War was no longer an internal Spanish affair. It had become an international battleground for the rival ideologies of fascism and communism.

italy reasons for interfering in the Spanish civil war

-Mussolini was seeking glory, confirmation of his ability to lead Italy back to its former greatness as a major power with a leading role to play in European affairs. While Italy maintained the pretence of supporting the Non-Intervention Committee, it was impossible to hide the presence of some 50 000 Italian troops and over 750 Italian fighter planes around the battlefields of Spain.

-Within Italy itself, Mussolini boasted of the country's involvement in the Spanish Civil War. It provided propaganda material designed to maintain his popularity with the Italian people. He portrayed himself as leading the fight against communism, which posed a major threat to the stability of Italy.

Germany reasons for interfering in the Spanish civil war

- The Spanish Civil War provided an opportunity to test the efficiency and capability of Germany's rearmament programme.

-Moreover, Hitler encouraged Italian involvement in Spain in an effort to distract Mussolini from Germany's own plans to force a union with Austria.

-To prolong the Spanish Civil War, Germany not only supplied Franco's Nationalists with men and equipment, but Hitler also allowed German firms to sell arms to the Republicans.

USSR reasons for interfering in the Spanish civil war

-Soviet leader Stalin also had a vested interest in prolonging the Spanish Civil War.

-Sensing that Germany posed the biggest threat to the security of the Soviet Union, Stalin had worked hard to maintain good relations with both Britain and France.

-While he certainly did not want Franco to take control of Spain, which would pose yet another fascist threat to the Soviet Union, he was also aware that neither Britain nor France would tolerate a communist government in Spain.

-As a result, Stalin authorised just enough aid to ensure that the Republicans could maintain their resistance, but not enough to enable them to gain outright victory.

Spain continuing to tear itself apart.

-Oblivious to these diplomatic intrigues, Spain continued to tear itself apart.

-Franco's well-armed professional soldiers met determined, if disorganised, resistance. The people of Madrid, encouraged by communist leaders such as Dolores Ibárruri, prepared to repel the Nationalist assault.

-Both men and women enlisted and were given basic training in methods of warfare.

-They were supported by International Brigades, communist-organised armies of foreign volunteers. British, French, Italian, German, Polish, Russian and American civilians poured into Spain by sea from Marseilles or along pathways across the Pyrenees.

-Some were driven by a desire to prevent the spread of fascism, but many were simply in search of adventure. At a time of high unemployment, there were many people who saw involvement in the Spanish Civil War as a way of escaping from poverty and boredom.

Outcomes of the USSR's involvement in the Spanish Civil War

-Increasingly concerned about its own security and diplomatic isolation, the USSR stopped sending supplies and ammunition to the Spanish Republicans by late 1938. This naturally helped the Nationalist cause.

-In addition, Franco gained further support from Germany in exchange for a 40% share in the Spanish iron mines.

-These factors gave Franco the upper hand. In January 1939, Barcelona finally fell to the Nationalists. With the fall of Madrid two months later, Franco's victory was secured.

outcomes of the Spanish civil war

-Adopting the title Caudillo (leader), Franco set about establishing a form of government that was, in

many ways, similar to those of Mussolini and Hitler.

-Repression, military courts and large-scale executions became as common in Spain as they were in Italy and Germany.

-However, Spain did not completely follow the typical pattern of a fascist state. This was most evident in the fact that Franco was an ardent supporter of the Church, restoring its control over education, and he avoided the persecution of Jews.

-As events unfolded towards the end of 1939, Hitler expected Spanish support, but Franco kept Spain out of the Second World War. While Hitler and Mussolini were ultimately defeated, Franco survived and continued to rule Spain until his death in 1975.

Hitler's main foreign policy aims can be summarised as:

-ending Germany's commitment to the Treaty of Versailles

-recovering all lost territory, including the Polish Corridor

-developing the German army, navy and air force

-uniting all German-speaking people under the government of Germany, beginning by forming a union with Austria (Anschluss)

-supporting the concept of Lebensraum, providing more 'living space' for the German people by the acquisition of more

territory - initially popularised within Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, Lebensraum became a fundamental principle of Nazism in the 1930s.

Hitler achieving his aims 1934-38

In the period from 1934 to 1938, Hitler achieved almost unqualified success in pursuit of these aims. Moreover, he did so without dragging Germany into another war. His methods were devious, dependent on a mixture of threats and conciliatory statements. His actions were frequently in open defiance of the Treaty of Versailles and, by his own admission, they were gambles with potentially serious consequences - he had no way of accurately predicting what the reaction of other countries might be.

Hitler defying the Treaty of Versailles

-Little by little, Hitler wore away the restraints the Treaty of Versailles had imposed upon Germany.

-He achieved this by convincing the major European nations, particularly Britain, that his motives were entirely honourable, justifiable and peaceful, while at the same time isolating countries that were the targets of his desire for the expansion of German power.

-Whether Hitler was following a meticulously devised plan of action towards war, or simply improvising as opportunities presented themselves, has become an issue of debate amongst historians.

Hitler defying the Treaty of Versailles: the Saar region

-In January 1935, the Saar region, with its valuable coal fields, was returned to Germany following a plebiscite of the local people (see Chapter 2.1).

-Although the plebiscite had taken place in line with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler fully exploited the propaganda opportunity this provided in order to enhance his reputation within Germany.

-To assure the French of his peaceful intentions, Hitler also claimed that this put an end to all remaining grievances between Germany and France.

German Rearmament

-Developing Germany's armed forces was one of Hitler's objectives.

-In March 1935, in direct contravention of the Treaty of Versailles, he reintroduced conscription, claiming that this was in response to increases in the British air force and the announcement that France was to extend conscription from 12 to 18 months.

-Hitler also declared that it was his intention to increase the German army to a strength of 600 000 men - six times higher than the number permitted by the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty had also banned Germany from having an air force; in February 1935, Hitler publicly announced the establishment of the Luftwaffe, a new German air force that had been formed secretly in May 1933.

-It was clear from Hitler's comments at, and subsequent withdrawal from, the World Disarmament Conference, that he intended to rearm Germany in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles.

International reactions to rearmament

-Initially, there appeared to be a strong reaction to German rearmament. British, French and Italian representatives met in Stresa in Italy to discuss their common concerns about Germany.

-On 14 April 1935, the prime ministers of Britain, France and Italy - Ramsay MacDonald, Pierre Laval and Benito Mussolini respectively - signed an agreement that established the Stresa Front. Its aim was to reaffirm the Locarno Treaties, maintain the independence of Austria and resist any future attempts to change the Treaty of Versailles.

Weaknesses of the stresa front pact

- From the outset, there were fundamental weaknesses in the Stresa Front that meant that it provided no real deterrent to Hitler's plans to rearm Germany.

- The terms of the agreement were vague, and did not specify what action Britain, France and Italy would take in support of its aims.

- In fact, although its implications were clear, the agreement was so vague that it did not specifically mention Germany at all.

-Realistically, preventing Hitler from carrying out his rearmament plans would have meant launching a full-scale invasion of Germany. None of the three countries was prepared to take such drastic action.

Anglo-German Naval Agreement

The Stresa Front's weaknesses were quickly exposed. In June 1935,

-Britain, without consulting its Stresa Front partners, entered negotiations with Germany which led to the signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement.

-Under its terms, Germany agreed to limit its navy to 35% the strength of the British navy. While this guaranteed British naval supremacy, Britain was effectively condoning a transgression of the Treaty of Versailles, which limited the size of the German naval fleet.

-The fact that Britain had signed this treaty without consulting either France or Italy clearly demonstrated the fragility of the Stresa Front alliance against Germany.

-With Britain's opposition to German rearmament effectively removed, Hitler continued to increase the size of his army, ordered the building of new battleships and began the process of developing a large and efficient air force. In effect, Hitler was tearing up the Treaty of Versailles - and no one was stopping him.

reaction to the anglo-german pact

Germany's rearmament, and Britain's apparent acceptance of it, caused considerable alarm in France, which, following the collapse of the Stresa Front, felt increasingly isolated and vulnerable. The USSR had similar concerns.

-Despite reservations about making an agreement with a communist country it considered untrustworthy, the French government signed a Treaty of Mutual Assistance with the USSR in 1935. The two countries agreed to support each other in the event that either of them were attacked by another European country.

the outcomes of the Abyssinian crisis

In October 1935, Mussolini launched the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, assuming that his Stresa Front partners would offer no opposition. He was both surprised and angry when Britain and France supported the League of Nations' sanctions against Italy. In response, Mussolini withdrew Italy from both the League of Nations and the Stresa Front.

Remilitarisation of the Rhineland (1936)

-Hitler's foreign policy thus far had been based on the assumption that none of the other major European countries would take serious action against him.

-This was clearly evident in March 1936, when Hitler ordered German soldiers to enter the Rhineland, part of Germany along its border with France. The Treaty of Versailles had ordered the demilitarisation of the Rhineland, providing France with security against any possible German aggression in the future.

- Hitler argued that this was unreasonable, since it prevented Germany from defending this part of its border. Hitler's decision to defy the Treaty of Versailles by placing German soldiers in the Rhineland was a gamble. He was completely aware that his armed forces were not yet ready for a full-scale war - he issued strict orders that his troops should retreat if they met French resistance.

British and French reactions to the remilitarization of the Rhineland

-Hitler's gamble proved successful. No resistance was met.

Although they protested vigorously, neither Britain nor France took any direct action to remove German soldiers from the Rhineland.

-Hitler had successfully regained full control over the Rhineland, and had done so without bloodshed.

-He was now fully convinced that Britain and France were not willing to go to war in defence of the Treaty of Versailles, and would not stand in the way of his determination to continue building up Germany's armed forces.

Hitler's justification for the remilitarization of the Rhineland

-Hitler justified the remilitarisation of the Rhineland and the redevelopment of Germany's armed forces by arguing that he was merely righting the wrongs inflicted on Germany by the unfair Treaty of Versailles. Germany was simply exerting its right to defend itself.

-His arguments were largely accepted in Britain, which had long argued that the Treaty of Versailles had been too harsh. Moreover, many British politicians saw a strong Germany as providing a good defence against the spread of communism.

international reactions to the remilitarization of the Rhineland

-Concerns regarding the long-term implications of Hitler's actions were greater in France and the USSR.

-German remilitarisation posed a clear threat to the security of France, especially now that German troops were strategically positioned on the French border in the Rhineland.

- In the USSR, there were concerns that the re-development of Germany's armed forces would lead to a German attack against Poland. This would not only adversely affect the USSR's own claims to parts of Poland, but would also threaten the security of the USSR itself.

-However, neither France nor the USSR felt strong enough to confront Hitler, and neither were prepared to go to war against Germany without the guarantee of British support.

Anschluss (1938)

-Although expressly forbidden in the terms of both the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint- Germain, Anschluss was one of Hitler's main foreign policy aims. It would unite German-speaking people, provide Germany with Austrian resources and undermine the treaties that Hitler so detested.

-That Hitler fully intended to force a union between Germany and Austria became clear in 1934. With Hitler's encouragement, Austrian Nazis staged a revolt and murdered the Austrian Chancellor, Engelbert Dollfuss. Hitler's troops were ready to enter Austria on the pretext of restoring order, but in the event they were forced to back down when Mussolini sent Italian regiments to the Austrian border.

-This unexpected setback highlighted the fact that Germany did not yet possess the military strength to risk a war against Italy. Hitler had no alternative but to deny any involvement in the actions taken by the Austrian Nazis. On this occasion, Hitler's gamble had failed.

the Rome-berlin axis 1936

Later in 1936, Hitler both removed Mussolini as a potential hindrance to his plans by forming the Rome-Berlin Axis with Italy and gained a further ally by signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Like Mussolini, Hitler provided military assistance to Franco during the Spanish Civil War. This enabled the German army and air force to gain vital military experience

1938- achieving Anschluss

In March 1938, Hitler finally achieved Anschluss with Austria in clear defiance of the Treaty of Versailles. Following riots and demonstrations organised by Austrian Nazis, which the government of Chancellor Schuschnigg was powerless to control, German troops moved in and declared Austria part of Germany.

-As before, Britain and France protested but took no direct action. Unlike in 1934, Mussolini's Italy, now a German ally, also did nothing.

Outcomes of Anschluss

-Hitler had achieved his long-standing aim of Anschluss, union between Germany and Austria.

- In so doing, he had gained access to valuable resources such as iron ore, added 7 million people to Germany's population and increased the size of its army by 100 000 men.

-Germany's strategic position within Europe had been greatly enhanced, posing an obvious threat to other countries, most notably Czechoslovakia, which was now surrounded on three sides by Nazi territory. Moreover, Hitler achieved this without bloodshed since no action was taken to oppose him. Yet again, Hitler's instinct that he could get away with international bullying proved correct.

Sudetenland (1938)

-Having effectively isolated potential opposition from Europe's other major powers, and convinced that they would take no action against him, Hitler now set about bringing more German-speaking people into the Third Reich.

-There were around 3.5 million such people living in the Sudeten area of Czechoslovakia, many of whom joined the Sudeten German Party. Under their leader, Konrad Henlein, they claimed, with some justification, that they were being discriminated against by the Czech government. Riots and demonstrations broke out, many of them orchestrated by the Nazis.

Hitler's justifications of claims to the Sudetenland

-In a speech on 12 September 1938, Hitler justified his claims to the Sudetenland. It shows Hitler's full support for the German-speaking people of the Sudeten region, encouraging them to continue their campaign for the Sudetenland to become part of Germany since it is what the local people actually want; self-determination.

-it aims to convince Britain and France that Germany's claim to the Sudetenland is just, and poses no threat to them. Edvard Benes, the Czech president believed that Hitler was deliberately stirring up these disturbances in order to justify a German invasion of Czechoslovakia.

Britain and France's reactions to the Sudetenland

-Hitler's instinct that Britain and France would do nothing proved correct. The British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, and his French counterpart, Édouard Daladier, put pressure on the Czech government to make concessions to Hitler.

-Chamberlain believed Germany's claim to the Sudetenland was reasonable - an error of the Treaty of Versailles in need of correction. The Czechs were reluctant to allow Germany to take over the Sudetenland, a part of the country that vital to its industrial infrastructure.

Implications on Czechoslovakia of losing the Sudetenland

-Moreover, the Sudetenland, with its mountains and strategically located defences, was key to the security of Czechoslovakia. The loss of the Sudetenland would leave Czechoslovakia totally vulnerable to any subsequent German attack.

-If Chamberlain genuinely believed that Hitler's designs on Czechoslovakia would end with the acquisition of the Sudetenland, he was wrong. Hitler had already informed his generals that 'it is my unalterable decision to smash Czechoslovakia by military action in the near future.'

Czechoslovakia (1939)

-As the prospect of war increased, a four-power conference was held in Munich on 29 September 1938. Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain and Daladier discussed the best way of resolving the problem of Czechoslovakia.

-It was agreed that Germany should take immediate possession of the Sudetenland.

-The Czech government was not invited to the meeting - it was simply informed that if it refused to abide by the decisions reached at Munich it could expect no assistance from either Britain or France.

-With resistance hopeless, the Czech government agreed. Beneš resigned.

Munich Agreement (1938)

-At a private meeting on 30 September, Chamberlain and Hitler signed a document renouncing warlike intentions and agreeing to deal with any future issues by negotiation. Hitler promised that he had no more territorial demands in Europe.

-Chamberlain used the huge press coverage of his return to Britain as an opportunity to demonstrate how successful he had been in gaining an understanding with Hitler. Holding up the signed piece of paper, he explained 'I believe it is peace for our time'. The British public was relieved that the threat of war had been averted, but many were not convinced that Hitler could be trusted to keep his promises.

The failures of the Munich agreement

-it quickly became apparent that Hitler had no intention of honouring the agreements made at Munich. Having encouraged riots by urging Slovakia to seek independence from the Czech government in Prague, Hitler warned that Germany might have to take action to preserve law and order.

- The new Czech president, Emil Hácha, was summoned to Berlin and informed that Prague would be bombed to destruction if he did not agree to allow the German occupation of what remained of Czechoslovakia. Hácha had little choice but to submit and 'invite' the Germans to restore order in Czechoslovakia.

German invasion of the Sudetenland 1939

-On 15 March 1939, German troops crossed the Czech border. Once again, Britain and France took no action. Chamberlain argued that the guarantee of Czech frontiers given at Munich did not apply because technically the German action was not an invasion; the Germans had been invited into the country.

international reactions to the invasion of the Sudetenland 1939

-Hitler was now totally convinced that Britain and France would never declare war against Germany. This time, however, his instincts were wrong. Whereas his earlier actions could be justified by the claim that he was merely redressing the unfair terms of the Treaty of Versailles, his acquisition of Czechoslovakia was different.

-He had seized territory over which Germany could have no justifiable claim and he had broken the promises he had made at Munich. No longer could Hitler claim that he had only peaceful intentions.

Poland (1939)

Hitler now turned his attention towards Poland.

-In April 1939, he demanded the return of Danzig (modern Gdańsk) and German access across the Polish Corridor. In some ways these were understandable demands.

-Danzig's population was largely German-speaking, while the Polish Corridor had split East Prussia from the rest of Germany.

- However, Hitler's demands were in defiance of both the Paris peace settlement and the non-aggression treaty Germany had signed with Poland in 1934.

-Considering recent events in Czechoslovakia, the Poles were naturally concerned that Hitler's demands were a first step towards a full invasion of Poland.

-That their concerns were justified is evident from the fact that, on 1 September 1939, German troops crossed the border into Poland.