Approaches

Wilhelm Wundt

The first person to be called a psychologist
Opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig Germany in 1879
"father of psychology"
His approach became known as structuralism

Introspection

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts images and sensations.
Obtained during task - person reports back their inner experiences

Introspection weakness

Reports are subjective so cannot be replicated
Findings are non-observational, cannot be observed or measured

The scientific method

Objective - based on findings
Subjective - based on opinions
Replicability - the ability to repeat a study and achieve the same findings
Empirical methods - can be observed

Scientific method process

1. ask a question
2. state a hypothesis
3. conduct an experiment
4. analyse the results
5. make a conclusion

Goals for psychology as a science

1. description - what occurred
2. explanation - why a behaviour or mental process occurred
3. prediction - identifies conditions under which a future behaviour or mental process is likely to occur
4. change - applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour to bring desired change

Psychology as a science Strengths

Lab based - high degree of control over variables
Real life application - allows the causes of behaviour to be identified, theories developed, tested and modified based upon this

Psychology as a science weakness

Lab based - lack of ecological validity
Biologically deterministic - certain human behaviours cannot be observed or measured using scientific method

Biological approach strengths

Scientific methods of evaluation e.g., fMRI's, drug studies, reliable data
Real life application - led to the development of psychoactive drugs e.g. depression

Early Behaviourism

John Watson

Tabula rasa

Blank slate

Assumptions of the behaviourist approach

- we are born as a blank slate
- attempts to explain behaviour in terms of learning
- extreme "nurture"
- argues psychology should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured
- uses classical and operant conditioning
- determined to be scientific through lab studies

Name for behaviourist explanations

Stimulus-Response

Methods of research - behaviourist approach

Laboratory experiments (control of extraneous variables) on animals to discover both the cause and effect.
Animal studies - believed there was no qualitative difference between man and animals.
Measure observable responses

What do they measure in classical conditioning

How much of a response was produced

What do they measure in operant conditioning

how often a response is produced

Classical conditioning overview

Ivan Pavlov
Learning through association
Dogs

Classical conditioning process

Before conditioning - Neutral stimulus \= bell
Unconditioned stimulus \= food
Unconditioned response \= salivation
During conditioning - Bell paired with food
After conditioning - Conditioned stimulus \= bell
Conditioned response \= dog

example of classical conditioning study

Little Albert Study - Watson and Rayner
Classically conditioned to fear white rat

Operant conditioning overview

Skinner
Rats + Pigeon experiment
Learning through reinforcement
Predict behaviour - behaviour is learnt
Repetition is reinforcing and reward makes a behaviour more likely to be repeated

Skinner rat/pigeon experiment

1. Rat is hungry and performs various explanatory behaviours
2. By chance the lever is pressed
3. a pellet of food appears
4. the rat has been conditioned to press the lever when he wants food

Reinforcement definition

Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated

Negative reinforcement definition

Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences being negative, or taking something away

Punishment

Anything which has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are unpleasant when they happen

positive reinforcement

anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are pleasant when they happen

Behaviourist approach Strengths

+ Real life applications -treatment of phobias, gambling
+ Scientific research/ laboratory study
+ Scientific research / scientific contribution - experimental method
+ animal research - controlled, lack of influence of characteristics

Behaviourist approach Criticisms

- animal stud - not generalisable to humans
- ethical issues of studying animals
- free will vs determinism

Biological approach assumption

All behaviour has a biological cause
Nature
A person's genetic influences behaviour, traits, personality

evolution definition

The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
Proposed by Charles Darwin

2 main concepts in evolutionary theory

Natural selection
Sexual selection

Natural selection

Partners are chosen based on behaviours and physical characteristics. Therefore a species not suited to an environment will die out as it struggles to survive so only adaptive characteristics remain in future off springs.

Principle of diversity

Variety within a species

Principle of interaction

how this variety of species adapt and fit in with the environment

The principle of differential amplification

Those who adapt to their environment will reproduce and those that do not will die out

Sexual selection

Women make their choice of who the mate with as they have limited eggs and time to conceive - genetic basis to sexual selection

Selective breeding

The process of artificially selecting male and female animals for a particular traits.
The animals are then put together in order to breed and produce offspring.

Genes

Heritable
Genetic information carried by DNA in chromosomes
Found within a cell's nucleus
Passed through generations of species if individuals survive and successfully reproduce
Can be recessive or dominant

Genotype

A persons actual genetic makeup, made up of DNA

Phenotype

The way way genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.
Influenced by environment

examples of phenotypes

Hair colour, eye colour, skin tone, height, freckles
PKU - genetic disorder that can lead to sever learning difficulties unless it is caught and child put on a strict diet

How to explore whether a trait or characteristic is genetic

Family studies - twin studies, adoption studies

Monozygotic twins

Identical twins forms when one zygote splits into 2 to form separate embryos
Share 100% of DNA

Dizygotic twins

non-identical twins when two zygotes are formed when 2 separate eggs are fertilised
Share 50% of DNA

Concordance rates

Between twins or siblings used to measure to what extent a similarity is due to genetics

Twin studies

Used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis
By comparison of concordance rates.
Identical twins will have the same genotype but their phenotype will differ if one exercises more

Adoption studies

Involve comparing a trait or characteristic between adopted children and their biological or adoptive parents.
Traits shared between child + biological parent \= genetic
Traits shared between adopted child + adopted parent \= environmental

Recessive gene

Only shows if the individual has 2 copies of the recessive genes

Dominant gene

Always shows up, even if the individual only has one copy of the gene

Biological approaches weaknesses

Cannot separate nature vs nurture
Biologically deterministic
Casual conclusions

Cognitive approach overview

- focuses on how people perceive, store, manipulate and interpret incoming information
- looks at internal mental processes
- Uses well controlled laboratory
- Make inferences

Inferences definition

The process by which cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour. Makes a logical conclusion

Theoretical model: information processing model

Is based on how computer functions.
Suggests information "flows" through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages "input, storage and retrieval"
Abstract thinking
Useful in developing AI

Information processing model

Input - incoming information from the environment via senses
Process - information is coded or processed
Output - the consequence

Computer models

Compares the brain as a "central processing unit"
Focuses on how we structure the process of reaching our behavioural output
Aim, Strategy, Output
The connectionist model - biological, neural line.
Views the mind as a complex network of neurons which activates in regular configurations that characterise known associations

Schema

"package" of information and ideas developed through experience
Acts as a script for how to act in a given situation
Mental short cut

Cognitive neuroscience

Scientific study of the influence of brain structure (neuro) on mental processes (cognition)
Has led to mind mapping techniques known as brain fingerprinting

Cognitive neuroscience and imaging techniques

fMRI - Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
PET - Position Emission Tomography

Cognitive approach strengths

Real life application - used to explain how dysfunctional behaviour can be traced back to faulty thinking processes + AI
Scientific strength - lab experiments produces scientific and objective data

Cognitive approach weakness

Machine reductionism - ignores influence of emotion and motivation
Lack of external validity - too abstract

Humanistic approach origins

Developed in America in 1950s
Third force - replaces behaviourism and psychoanalysis
Emphasised the importance of subjective experience
Less deterministic and artificial approach

Free will definition

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces

Abraham Maslow beliefs

Humans are motivated by needs beyond basic biological survival
Created "self-actualisation" and hierachy of needs

Maslow hierachy of needs levels

Physiological - breathing, food, water, sleep
Safety - security of body, employment, resources, family, health
Love/belonging - friendship, family, sexual intimacy
Esteem - self-esteem, confidence, respect
Self-actualisation - problem solving, morality, creativity

Motivation for self-actualisation

Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-oriented

Congruence

If an individual maintains a reasonable consistency between ideal self and actual behaviour

Incongruence

The greater gap between the ideal self and actual self.
Leads to low self-wroth and maladjustment

Defence mechanisms

Can stop the self from growing and changing widening the levels of incongruence.
Distortion, denial, blocking

Carl Rogers arguement

For personal growth to be achieved an individuals concept of self must be equivalent to their ideal self (congruence)
Client centred therapy

Client centred therapy

Used in order to reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self.
An effective therapist is able to provide clients with the unconditional positive regard that they failed to receive as a child

conditions of worth

A parent who sets boundaries or limits on their love for their child is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future.

Methods of investigaiton

Q-sort assessment developed by Stephenson (1953)
Used in CCT
A series of cards that contain a personal statement and the person sorts them into 2 statements: to describe their real self, describe their ideal self

Humanistic approach strength

Not reductionist - doesn't break up behaviour
Positive approach - contributed to psychological theories

Humanistic approach weakness

Limited application - vagueness of self-actualisation
Untestable concepts
Cultural bias - associated with individualistic cultures, USA

Sigmund Freud

Psychodynamic approach
Mental activity is unconscious which causes behaviour
Psychosexual stages
Defence mechanisms
Talking cures

Psychodynamic approach key assumptions

Unconscious activity determines how we behave
Possess innate drives
The psych - is our personality
Childhood experiences have significant importance

Cosncious mind

The part of the mind that we know about

unconscious mind

A vast storehouse of drives and instincts which influence our behaviour and personality.
Contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed/locked away
Can be accessed during dreams/parapraxes

Components of the psyche

ID, EGO, SUPEREGO

ID

Dives us to satisfy selfish urges
Primitive part of our personality
Pleasure principle
Entirely selfish
Demands instant gratification of its needs
exists from birth
Unconscious drive and instincts

SUPEREGO

Concerned with keeping to moral norms
"morality principle"
Represents moral standards of the child's same sex parent
Formed at the end of the phallic stage
Attempts to control ID and EGO with feelings of guilt
Develops years 4-5

EGO

Reality principle
Mediator between the ID and SUPEREGO
Acts rationally
Uses defence mechanisms
Develops around the age of 2-4

Psychosexual stages

The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital)
The child can only move one once the previous stage has been resolved, if not, fixation occurs

Oral stage

Pleasure of mouth
0-18 months
May lead to oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic

Anal

Pleasure of the anus - expelling faeces
1-3 years
May lead to anal retentive - perfectionist, obsessive or Anal expulsive - thoughtless, messy

Phallic

Focus on pleasure of genital area
3-5 years
May lead to a phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual

Latency

6-puberty, dormant sexual feelings

Genital

sexual desires become conscious along with puberty
May lead to difficulty forming heterosexual stages

Oedipus/ Electra complex

Occurs during the Phallic stage (3-6yrs)
The child experiences an unconscious feeling of desire for their opposite-sex parent and jealousy towards same-sex parent.
Resolved when the boy begins to identify with father as a way to get to the mother (father becomes a role model)

Oedipus complex study

Little Hans study 1909

Little Hans summary

5 year old boy with a phobia of horses.
At age 3 Hans showed interest in "widdlers" and his mother threatened to cut his off.
Developed a phobia of horses because of the large penis.
The phobia only improved when he saw horses with a black harness over their nose - relating it to his fathers moustache

Ego defence mechanisms

Ego balances conflicts between ID and super ego and tries to reduce anxiety by using defence mechanisms

Defence mechanism definition

An unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimulus.
Used by the unconscious mind to manipulate, deny or distort reality

3 types of defence mechanism

Repression, denial, displacement

Repression

Burying an unpleasant though or desire in the unconscious

Displacement

Emotions are directed away from their source or target towards other things

Denial

A threatening though is ignore or treated as if it were not true

Psychodynamic approach strengths

Real life application - "talking cures" - psychoanalysis
Used case studies

Psychodynamic approach weakness

Case studies are idiographic
Case studies - create qualitative data
Determinist approach - rejects the idea of free will
Overemphasis on childhood behaviour
Product of its time
Culture bound

Imitation

Copying the behaviours of others

Vicarious reinforcement

Observing the behaviour and the consequences of the behaviour. Imitation is more likely to occur if the model is positively reinforced