pysch ch 9

What is an algorithm?

a methodological, logical rule/procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem (contrasts to more error-prone heuristics) (step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution)

What is a prototype?

a mental image or best example of a category

• matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

What is insight?

sudden realization “a-ha moment” of a problem’s solution which contrasts with strategy-based solutions

What is confirmation bias and fixation? 

confirmation bias: looking for news not only to inform us, but rather to affirm us

• leads us to seek evidence to support our ideas and perceptions more eagerly than against them

  fixation: in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

What is intuition?

the effortless and automatic feeling or thought as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

(ex: should I take my jacket today?)

What does it mean to frame a question?

how an issue/question is posed

• how an issue is framed/asked can significantly affect decisions and judgements (wording a question/statement so that it evokes a desired response)

• nudge: framing a choice in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

(knowing people prefer tasty over healthy foods, researchers nudged healthy choices with tasty sounding labels)

Based on your understanding of decision making… which of the following would be FALSE?

1. We make decisions differently depending on how issues are presented.

2. We base most decisions on probabilities and ignore emotions

2. We base most decisions on probabilities and ignore emotions. 

What is the difference between convergent testing vs. divergent testing? 

convergent testing: narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent testing: expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

What is belief perseverance? 

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

What are some findings about overconfidence?

overconfidence: the tendency to be more confident than correct (to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements)

• often leads us to succumb to a planning fallacy (ex: students expect to finish an assignment ahead of schedule but in reality, it generally will take about twice the predicted time)

• can lead to more adaptability and more happiness

Which brain area controls the expression of language?

Broca’s Area

What are phonemes?

in language) the smallest distinctive sound unit

(ex: that has three phonemes: th, a, t)

What are morphemes? 

(in a language) the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (like a prefix)

ex: readers has 3 morphemes: read, er (one who reads), s (not one, multiple)

What’s the difference between syntax and semantics?

syntax: ordering words into sentences

semantics: deriving meaning from sounds

What is the critical period for language development?

Childhood (before 7 or older)

What is content validity?

whether a measurement includes all the essential elements it needs to cover, taking into account practical considerations and other factors, to ensure the accuracy and completeness of assessing a specific aspect of cognition or impairment in a particular context.

How do you find the intelligence quotient?

the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (IQ= ma/ca x 100)

What does an achievement test assess? 

aims to figure out how much a person has actually learned

What are the components of emotional intelligence? 

1) perceive, 2) understand, 3) manage, and 4) use emotions

What is Savant Syndrome? 

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing

What is mental rehearsal? 

where the performer pictures themselves executing a skill and practises the skill in their mind, focusing on the specific stages and correct technique 

What is the difference between reliability and validity? 

reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

validity: the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it’s supposed to do

What is Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory? 

The theory that there are eight identifiable different kinds of intelligence which include naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, and spatial.