ANATOMY UNIT 1 EXAM

intro and terminology, cell, tissues and integument, bones, joints

Anatomy

the study of the human body

Gross Anatomy

examines structures that can be seen with unaided eye

Microanatomy

studies structures that can only be seen with aid of a microscope

Surface anatomy

studies surface marking of body

regional anatomy

based on regions or divisions of the body and emphasizing the relations between various structures

systemic anatomy

study of the body's structure by systems

developmental anatomy

study of the structural changes that occur in cells, tissues, organs, and the human body from fertilization to adulthood

clinical anatomy

the application of anatomy to patient care

physiology

classified by organ or organ system being studied

The chemical/molecular level

atoms are the smallest chemical units. Essential atoms for life include C, H, N, O, P, S and Ca. Molecules are a group of atoms working together.

The Cellular Level

cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working together; muscle cell, nerve cells, and epithelial cells

The Tissue Level

Tissues are a group of similar cells working together. Four basic types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous

The Organ Level

an organ is a group of similar cells working together. cardiac muscle tissue and connective tissue form wall of heart.

The system level

organs interact in organ systems: Heart, blood, and blood vessels form cardiovascular system.

The Organism level

Humans

What is homeostasis?

maintain balance = functioning healthy

How does negative feedback work?

Maintain homeostasis

* when a change in status of a regulated variable is detected, a series of events is triggered to return variable to its normal value
* each regulated variable has a set point or an established base line

How does positive feedback work?

Away from homeostasis

* less common than negative feedback loops; effector activity increases and reinforces initial stimulus, shuts off when conditions return to the normal range
* childbirth and blood clotting

Which organ systems help maintain temperature?

nerves, cardiovascular, integument, skeletal muscle

Which organ system help protect?

lymphatic - immune cells

integument - hair, skin, nails

respiratory - sneeze, cough, cilia

skeletal muscle - internal organs

urinary - can potentially pee out wastes

Which organ system helps you move?

skeletal muscle

Example of negative feedback loop

control of body temp

* stimulus - body temp decreases below normal range
* receptor - receptors in brain cells detect change in temp
* control center - brain cells receive info and determine body temp is below range
* response - nerve cell activate skeletal muscle cells to start shivering , producing heat
* in homestatic range - as body temp returns to normal, feedback stops shivering of skeletal muscles

example of positive feedback loop

blood clotting

* stimulus - injury occurs to blood vessel
* receptor - blood vessel damage is detected by receptors on platelets
* control center - activated platelets release chemicals that attract and activate more platelets (effect amplifies by positive feedback)
* response - platelets seal blood vessels
* end point reached - once vessel is sealed, platelet activity decreases

anatomical position

common frame of reference from which all body parts and regions are described

* Body is standing upright; feet are shoulder width apart, with upper limbs at sides of trunk & head & palms facing forward
* Body is always referred to as if it were in anatomical position
* "Right" and "left" refers to sides of body being described, not our own

male in anatomical position

penis is in its erect position, it lies against the abdomen

dorsal body cavity

largely located on posterior side of the body; subdivided into two cavities

* Cranial activity - within skull, protects brain
* Vertebral (spinal) cavity - within vertebral column. protect spinal cord

ventral body cavity

separated into two division by diaphragm

* Thoracic cavity (superior to diaphragm) -
* pleural cavities (each surround either left or right lung)
* mediastinum (between pleural cavities, houses heart, great vessels = pulmonary trunk and aorta, trachea and esophagus)
* pericardial cavity (within mediastinum, within serous membrane that surrounds heart)
* Abdominopelvic cavity (inferior to diaphragm) -
* superior abdominal cavity = spans from diaphragm to bony pelvis
* pelvic cavity = area within bony pelvis
* contains organs from several systems = digestive, lymphatic, reproductive, and urinary

what lines each body cavity?

pleural cavities --→ pleural membranes

pericardial cavity --→ pericardial membranes

abdominal cavity --→ peritoneal membranes

pleural membranes

outer parietal pleura - follow contours of thoracic wall

inner visceral pleura - runs along surface of lungs

thin space enclosed by pleural membranes forms pleural cavities

pericardial membranes

outer parietal pericardium - separates heart from mediastinum

inner visceral pericardium

space created by pericardial membrane forms pericardial cavity

peritoneal membranes

surrounds some of abdominal organs

outer parietal peritoneum

inner visceral peritoneum

space between these layers forms peritoneal cavity

does’t cover every organ; kidneys lie outside and behind parietal peritoneum and are called retroperitoneal organs

11 Organ Systems

Muscular

Respiratory

Lymphatic

Digestive

Integument

Cardiovascular

Endocrine

Reproductive

Urinary

Nervous

Skeletal

Integumentary System

* Hair, skin, nails
* protection = covers surface
* Vitamin D synthesis starts in skin - keeps bones healthy
* temp regulation = can sweat
* skin: sensation (sensory cells)

Skeletal System

* joints, bones
* protection = protect organs such as heart
* movement with skeletal muscle
* all blood cells are made in red bone marrow
* stores Calcium - if not enough, get it from bones
* passageway for nerves = vertebral foramina (openings for nerves to go through)

Muscular system

* skeletal muscles
* protection = protect organs = skeletal muscle
* temp regulation = skeletal muscle = can shiver = releasing heat
* controls openings = smooth & skeletal muscle
* movement with bones = skeletal muscle
* movement of food stuff is smooth muscle
* store glycogen in skeletal muscle
* skeletal muscle pump = helps to return blood back to heart
* cardiac muscle = muscle (24/7)
* skeletal muscle helps to maintain posture

Nervous system

* brain, spinal cord, nerves
* communication using nerves
* sensation
* regulates movement = need a nerve to contract muscle
* memory and learning
* emotions
* Hypothalmus = regulates lots including temp

Endocrine system

* pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, testes, ovaries
* communication using hormones
* regulates organ function such as insulin to release to absorb glucose
* metabolism = using ATP
* emotions

Cardiovascular system

* blood vessels, heart
* heart is pump
* transport = carry gases, nutrients, wastes
* temp regulation = can dump heat at vessels (make them bigger)
* acid base regulation due to carrying CO2 - loves water
* blood pressure regulation = make bigger/smaller vessels

Lymphatic system

* tonsils, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymphatic vessels
* water balance = returns fluid lost back into circulation
* protection due to lots of immune cells
* part of digestive system = help to absorb fats

Respiratory system

* nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs
* communication via vocal cords = speak when exhaling (air exits when speaking)
* acid-base balance = can exhale CO2
* gas exchange = bring in O2, exhale CO2; humans breathe due to CO2 being sensed in CNS
* protection = can sneeze, cough, have cilia in trachea
* lungs produce an enzyme

Digestive system

* mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, liver, stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, large and small intestine
* breaking down food, absorbing nutrients
* water balance = can absorb water
* ion balance
* acid-base balance due to H+
* huge in immunity = gut is biggest immune system

Urinary system

* kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
* acid-base = can pee out H+
* water balance = can pee out or keep water
* releases a hormone that leads to calcium absorption and red blood cell production
* protection = can potentially pee out wastes

Reproductive system

* Male - prostate gland, ductus deferens, testis, penis
* Women - mammary glands, uterine tube, ovary, uterus, vagina
* produces and transports sperm/eggs
* secretes hormones
* sexual function
* women - site of fetal development, fetal nourishment, child birth and lactation

what types of substances can pass through the plasma membrane without help?

hydrophobic substances: lipid soluble stuff

all gases can easily cross

water

What factors are important for a substance to be permeable across the membrane?

size, electrical charge, molecular shape, and lipid solubility

Apoptosis

programmed cell death; it is unintentional/planned; happens in healthy tissues and cells (such as skin cells); important for the normal parts of cell aging

Active Transport

movement of a substance against its concentration gradient via a protein pump. symporter, or antiporter

Passive Transport

do not require expenditure of cellular energy substances move down their concentration gradient

Simple diffusion

small and nonpolar molecules move unassisted between phospholipid molecules of the plasma membrane; no transport protein required

facilitated difussion

ions and small polar molecules are assisted across the plasma membrane by a transport protein

osmosis

the movement of water across the cell membrane, towards higher solute concentration - where the party is

Exocytosis

granules or droplets are released from the cell; such as proteins, hormones, and other chemical messengers

Endocytosis

active transport using ATP; materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane - pinocytosis, phagocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis

Pinocytosis

endosomes “drink” extracellular fluid

Phagocytosis

cell “eating”; engulf large objects in phagosomes - bring in pathogen

Receptor mediated endocytosis

brings in things like vitamins, antibiotics, low density lipoproteins (bad cholesterol) into cells

Where is cytoplasm located?

cytosol + organelles inside a cell

cytosol

intracellular fluid = surrounds the organelles

Ribosomes

build polypeptides during protein synthesis

free ribosomes - in cytoplasm

fixed ribosomes - attached to ER

the central location for the production of ribosomes is the nucleolus

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth ER

* no ribosomes attached
* involved in the production lipids, carbohydrate metabolism, and detox of drugs
* located bear cell periphery
* lots in liver

Rough ER

* surface covered with ribosomes
* active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis
* located near nucleus
* lots in pancreas - insulin and plasma cells

Golgi apparatus

* UPS
* packages macromolecules (protein and lipids) into vesicles after their synthesis and before they make their way to their destination

Mitochondria

* takes chemical energy from food (glucose)
* produces energy molecule ATP
* muscle cells and heart cells tend to have lots of mitochondria due to needing lots of energy to function

mitosis

cell division: single cell --→ two identical daughter cells

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

Lysosome

clean up inside cells

* break down large molecules
* attack bacteria = part of immune system
* recycle damaged organelles
* eject wastes by exocytosis
* smaller than peroxisome

autolysis

self-destruction of damaged cells by lysozomes

unintentional

occurs in response to injury or infection

peroxisome

use oxygen for catalytically detoxify and break down fatty acids

detoxifies toxic substances such as alcohol - lots in liver

bigger than lysosomes

centriole

form spindle apparatus during cell division, are bundles of microtubules (organize them)

Microfilaments

thin filaments composed of the protein actin (long; located near edge of cell)

intermediate filaments

mid-sized between microfilaments and thick filaments = durable = composed of protein collagen and strengthen cell and maintain shape; stabilize organelles and cell position

microtubules

large, hollow tubes of tubulin protein (tube-like)

strengthen cell and anchor organlles

change cell shape

move vesicles within cell = especially important in neurons for communication (malfunction --→ dementia/alzheimer’s)

centrioles, cilia, and flagella = also made of microtubules

cilia

small hair-like extensions that beat rhythmically back and forth

formed of microtubules

move fluid across the cell surface

important in trachea to remove debris and pathogens

flagellum

tail-like projection (microtubules) that protrudes from the cell body and functions in locomotion

only found in sperm

microvilli