Trait Aspects of Personality
-definition: this approach uses a limited set of adjectives to describe and scale people -it attempts to capture stable notions of personalty through systematic scientific means -important terms: Jung, Cattel, 16PF, Allport, Big 5, Implicit Personality Theory, Eysenck, 3 Dimensions, Murray
Carl Jung
-launched the trait approach -believed that there are 2 main personality types: introverted and extroverted, we all have both but one is dominant -Extroversion-- orientation towards things outside of oneself -Introversion--tendency to turn inward and explore one's feelings and experiences -the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is based on Jung's personality types
R.B Cattell
-took Allport's observations and reduced the traits statistically -used factor analysis/cluster analysis
Factor analysis/Cluster Analysis
R.B Cattel gathered info from multiple sources: -T-Data -L-Data -Q-Data
T-Data
test situation
R.B Cattel gave tests and observed how people responded
L-Data
life data
R.B Cattel interviewed those close to the person
Q-Data
questionnaires
from Q-Data, R.B Cattel developed the 16PF (personality factors) -16PF- there are 16 factors and using factor analysis can tell us where someone falls on each factor
Gordon Allport
-saw the notion of "stable" traits as inadequate -rather, he believed that behavior is variable BUT there is a constant, core portion of each person, called the proprium -this is an idiographic approach
Proprium
allport
the core of someone
Super Patriot
allport
our belief is the only way
view those who are different as objects to scorn or despise
4 types of dispositions (allport)
Nuclear Quality
Personal
Cardinal
Central
Nuclear Quality
Allport's term for describing personal dispositions in terms of a person's unique goals, motives, or styles
Personal Dispositions
Allport's term for disposition that is peculiar to an individual, something that makes you stand out
Cardinal Dispositions
Allport
aspects of the personal dispositions that exert overwhelming influence on behavior
personality is rooted within the person, though behavior may differ based on the situation
Central Dispositions
Allport's term for fundamental qualities that succinctly portray individual; how our personality is organized
The Big 5
-5 personality traits that capture common personality elements
controversial because it reduces personality to five variables
present in all cultures, expect those who do not interact with the western world
research based
Extroversion (aka surgency)
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness (aka lack of impulsivity)
Neuroticism (aka emotional stability)
Openness (aka openness to experience, culture or intellect)
The Big 5: Extroversion
-aka surgency -high: energetic, talkative, sociable, dominant -low: shy, retiring, submissive, quiet
The Big 5: Agreeableness
-high: friendly, cooperative, trusting, warm -low: cold, quarrelsome, unkind
The Big 5: Conscientiousness
aka lack of impulsivity *early research on personality called this dimension “will” -high: cautious, dependable, persevering, organized, responsible -low: impulsive, careless, disorderly, undependable
The Big 5: Neuroticism
aka emotional stability *Freudian term -high: NOT emotionally stable, nervous, tense, moody, worrying, high strung -low: stable, calm, contended
The Big 5: Openness
aka openness to experience, culture, or intellect -high: imaginative, witty, original, sarcastic -low: shallow, plain, simple
Implicit Personality Theory (Asche)
part of social psychology
the theory that certain traits go together and we're not necessarily aware that we group them together.
there are consistencies in how we see things, particularly other people's personalities. We may erroneously group traits together
Cross-Cultural Research on Big 5
cross-cultural research confirms that the big 5 personality types exist in many different cultures, proving that the big 5 are not the result of stereotypes
Big 3 (Eysenck's Perspective)
-found the big 5 were repetitive, so reduced them to 3 -Eysenck's 3 dimensions:
Extroversion
Neuroticism
new trait: Psychoticism -this approach does NOT directly account for openness
Eysenck's 3 Dimensions: Extroversion
outgoingness and assertiveness (borrowed from Cattell)
Eysenck's 3 Dimensions: Neuroticism
emotional stability and apprehensiveness
Eysenck's 3 Dimensions: Psychoticism
-the tendency toward psychopathology -high: impulsive, cruel, shrewd, low on agreeableness and shrewdness -includes Cattell's tough-mindedness and shrewdness
Temperament (Eysenck's Perspective)
Eysenck took a biological approach, he found that: A. Extroverts have low level of brain arousal and need outside stimulation. B. Introverts have high level brain arousal and shy away from over-stimulation situations. C. Neurotics don't have a well modulated nervous system and can't self-sooth
Research on Eysenck's Approach
there's MIXED research on the validity of this theory
Consensus in Personality Judgements (validity)
(1) Zero Acquaintance- the state we are in when we observe someone with whom we have never interacted (2) use collateral sources (self-ratings, peer-ratings, and even spouse-ratings) - same Big 5 dimensions emerge among past research (McCrae & Costa, 1987) (3) Successful in predicting future behavior and outcomes (Friedman, Kern, & Reynolds, 2010; Friedman & Martin, 2011; Ozer & Benet-Martinez, 2006)
Types & Motives (Henry Murray's Perspective)
Types are not always predictable, so focus on motives -- internal neuropsychological patterns that induce a behavior:
Achievement
Affiliation: Want to spend time with other people
Dominance: power
Basic Needs (Henry Murray's Perspective)
determine motivations (expressive style, achievement, affiliation, dominance)
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Henry Murray's Perspective)
Tested different motivations. Show the patient pictures and tell them to come up with a story for the pics. Do this over time and you will see themes and from there you can assess their motivations.
Expressive Style
(a) emotional expressiveness (temperament) – individual has typical ways of expressing or inhibiting feelings - Part of temperament is how you express things - People with emotional expressiveness are able read people - Behaviorally visible, hard to inhibit (hand gestures)
(b) dominance, leadership, influence - take charge, good leadership skills
(c) expressiveness and health - Affects health (see below) - Toxic anger is when the person internalizes their anger - Causes alienation when there’s under expressiveness
Horney: Real Self (innate)
People are born with a real self that needs a safe environment to develop; includes our potential for self-realization
Horney: Favorable conditions for growth
(1) Security (2) Warmth (3) Inner freedom to have own thoughts and feelings (4) Being able to express thoughts and feelings (5) Needing others for guidance and limits
Horney: Basic Anxiety
you're born into an environment that should be a good fit if not, you'll develop basic anxiety
this anxiety can continue throughout life (lost & lonely adults)
Horney: 3 ways of Dealing with the "World"
Towards (passive)
Against (aggressive)
Withdrawn
Horney: Idealized Self vs. Real Self
Those with basic anxiety create an idealized self -- what one views as perfection and hopes to achieve (influenced by "shoulds") -- Horney argued the purpose of psychotherapy was not to achieve the idealized self, but rather to accept the real self
Horney: "Goodness of Fit"
Prevents insecurity from developing; children need to be in a favorable environment in order to self-actualize
Horney: Flexibility vs. Rigidity
Flexible: people have a mix of moving toward, against, and withdrawing from the world Rigid: only use one all the time; when rigidity increases we get alienated from our real self
Horney: Different Views of Males and Females
Oedipus/electra complex was wrong
girls do not envy penis
girls do not change their area of pleasure
girls do not change their love from mother to father
Horney: Comprehensive Neurotic Solution (3 Types)
Need for perfection
Neurotic ambition-- you set the bar impossibly high for yourself and need to be the master of time, space and dimension
Vindictive Triumph-- you're out for revenge against other people
Different Socialization for males and females
Chodorow
boys and girls are socialized differently
boys have injuries earlier than girls
at around age 2, boys are pushed away from moms (girls go through this at around age 9
infantile dependence
completely dependent on the caregiver for warmth, needs met
4 aspects of "masculinity"
Chodorow
Masculinity remains a problem for boys (bc they are told to never talk about their feelings, but they still have feelings)
Denial of attachment in relationships (bc they're pushed away from their moms early)
Repression of anything feminine within the self
Devaluing femininity
mean are more likely to boomerang after a fight
"Schizophrenigenic" mother
"crazy making mother"
the child having psychological problems is the mother's fault
boy code
Chodorow
give em' hell
no sissys
boys run in packs w/ a leader (alpha) - big wheel
dont depend on anybody - sturdy oak
How women are psychologically different
more flexible ego boundaries
less individuated (value on-going affiliation)
less need for competition, power
value "related"-ness
Kohlberg's 6 stages of Moral Development
Deference to Authority
Reward Orientation
Concern for Others
Doing One's Duty
Social Contract Orientation
Universal Ethical Principle
Carol Gilligan connection to Chodorow
heavily influence by Chodorow and her findings supported Chodorow's
found that boys are more competitive and girls are more sensitive
boys do more interactive play; girls do more parallel play
What Gilligan discovered
Error in Kohlberg's study (moral reasoning)
Females are socialized to think about others when making decisions/choices
In a couple (heterosexual), the female may be more aware of what's going on than the male
Gilligan's views of Moral development
Concern for Others occurs mostly in females
Doing One's Duty occurs mostly in males
Doesn't agree with Kohlberg's statement Doing one's duty is a higher stage of development than having concern for others
5 levels of Intimacy (Real)
thoughts
feelings
physical closeness
spirituality - making common memories
sexuality
Different socialization and “deformities” (Real)
Men are “injured” in early childhood & learn not to express emotions
Women are “deformed” in adolescence and lose their voice
''Soul of blunt''
Real -5 levels of intimacy -3 rings of patriarchy -3 stages of love -New views on couples therapy-- neutrality does NOT work
Real: 3 Rings of Patriarchy
The great divide/Halving-- we divide everything based on what's masculine and what's feminine
Dance of contempt-- the psychology of oppression. We value the masculine over the feminine
Code of silence-- men are taught they can't speak about their emotions, so they remain silent
Real: 3 Stages of Love
Love without knowledge-- beginning of a relationship when you're in love with someone, but don't know them so well
Knowledge without love-- once you get to know someone, you learn more about them and may not be as compatible as you thought
Mature love-- working through challenges and being okay. Communication is key. Only 50% of relationships make it here.
Real: 3 Levels of Daily-Related-ness
harmony
disharmony
repair
in a relationship, this is a continuous cycle you go through
Real: Process of repair (3 phases)
speaking & listening
responding with generosity
empowering each other
two kinds of people (in love)
Love addicts (enmeshed): don't feel secure when they're partner isn't next to them
Love avoiders: take off once relationship gets serious
Traditional Couples Therapy (Real)
Traditional couples therapy, not effective due to issues of “neutrality”
Traditional approach helped more “functional” couples but may have done disservice to more disturbed couples (e.g. in cases of domestic violence)
Pre-conditions for couples therapy (Real)
Manage psychiatric disorders
no acting out
no substance abuse
Real's Treatment approach
Create a safe space to be intimate in
Take both sides, just at different times woman first and then man
What men need to learn (Real)
men learn to be relational (not boomerang)
What women need to learn (Real)
women learn to speak directly
classical conditioning
Pavlov
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
learning that occurs through paired associations
second order conditioning
a conditioned stimulus is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the unconditioned stimulus in an earlier procedure
generalization ex: the environment becomes part of the fear
unconditioned stimulus & response
biological and nature made, has not been conditioned
UCS: food
UCR: salivation (reflex)
conditioned stimulus & response
learned stimulus/response
CS: bell
CR: salivation
Little Albert
phobias can develop through conditioning
Albert developed a conditioned fear of a white rat (CS) because it was paired with a loud noise (UCS)
Generalization: Albert began to fear other, similar stimuli (other fluffy white objects)
Generalization/Discrimination
gray area: similar enough that the fear translates over
generalization discrimination: you’re afraid of dentists bc of a horrible experience, but you’re not scared of doctors; the two are different enough to discriminate between them
ABC's of behaviorsm
Thorndike Antecedent Behavior Consequences A+C = operant conditioning A+B = classical conditioning
Law of effects
Thorndike
if we receive a negative reaction to our behavior we are less likely to do it again
if we receive a positive reaction to our behavior we are more likely to do it again
trial & error learning
Thorndike a method of problem solving characterized by repeated, varied attempts until success
instrumental conditioning
Thorndike A form of conditioning in which the correct response is essential for reinforcement
operant conditioning
Skinner
focused on voluntary behavior and the reinforcement that shapes it
method of learning that occurs through rewards & punishments for behavior
negative reinforcement
Skinner
negative = a stimulus was taken away
reinforcement = the behavior will increase
a stimulus was taken away in order to increase behavior e.g. Billy cleans his room and his mom doesn't make him do chores so that Billy will clean his room in the future
positive reinforcement
Skinner
positive = a stimulus was added
reinforcement = the behavior will increase
the addition of a stimulus in order to increase behavior e.g. Billy cleans his room and mom gives him ice cream so that Billy will clean his room in the future
punishment
Skinner give something bad to decrease behavior physical punishment increases anxiety; running away behavior
extinction
Skinner get rid of a behavior by getting rid of a rewarding part of it
shaping
Skinner gradual reinforcement to a certain behavior; moving a behavior towards what you want (critical: it is gradual)
schedules of reinforcement
Skinner Ratio (based on number of responses): (1) Fixed Ratio (2) Variable Ratio
Interval (based on time): (1) Fixed Interval (2) Variable Interval
Variable Ratio
rewards comes following irregular schedule - most resistant to extinction e.g. slot machine (highest)
Fixed Ratio
specific number of responses for a reward e.g. work for a grade, frequent flyer miles (high)
Fixed Interval
specific amount of time e.g. mail (lowest w/ scallops)
Variable Interval
irregular time e.g. pop quizzes, speed traps (moderate/slow & steady)
Relationship between thoughts & feelings
Ellis
they are connected
thoughts impact emotions
emotions impact thoughts
“self talk”
Ellis
when something negative occurs -> automatic response
if irrational, results in negative feelings
inner monologue
how a person describes a situation to themselves
8 Basic concepts
Ellis (1) Potential to be rational as well as irrational.
(2) Frequently exacerbated by their culture and their family group.
(3) Humans tend to perceive, think, emote, and behave simultaneously.
(4) Focus of treatment is highly cognitive, active-directive, HW assigning, & discipline-oriented.
(5) A warm relationship between counselor &counselee is not a necessary or sufficient condition for effective personality change.
(6) Multi-modal approach
(7) Virtually all serious emotional problems directly stem from magical, thinking; if disturbance-creating ideas are vigorously disputed by logico-empirical thinking, they can be eliminated or minimized.
(8) Insights often do not lead to major personality change
Theory of Personality
Ellis
physiological basis
social aspects of personality
psychological aspects of personality
Physiological aspects of personality
Ellis
humans are naturally inclined to do x over y
don't make yourself do something that's not you
Social aspects of personality
Ellis Emotional problems happen when we care too much about others think
Psychological aspects of personality
Ellis We live in our heads and needlessly upset ourselves
Irrational thoughts
Ellis Also called dysfunctional thoughts. In Ellis's model and therapy, these are defined as thoughts that are likely to interfere with a person's happiness.
''musterbation”
Ellis Living by a set of unrealistic and rigid demands placed on oneself, others, and the world:
I must do well
You must treat me well
The world must be easy
10 common cognitive distortions
Ellis
All or nothing thinking
Overgeneralization
Mental Filter 4.Disqualifiying the positive
Jumping to conclusions (mind reading/ fortune teller error)
Magnification/ Catastrophizing or minimizing
Emotional reasoning
Should statements
Labeling/Mislabeling
Personalization
CBT
Ellis believes thoughts and feelings are irrational
DBT
Ellis
subset of CBT
dialectic – irreverence
beliefs that thoughts are irrational but are not in context of their life
Rational Emotive Therapy
Ellis
forerunner to CBT