ETHICS (y13) - Free will and moral responsibility

What is the first necessity to be morally responsible?

• Must be a free human agent

• Non-human animals, machines and inanimate objects cannot be morally responsible as they don’t act through free will

What is the 2nd necessity to be morally responsible?

• Moral agent must be conscious while making the decision

• eg: If someone knew they had a heart condition and had been warned not to drive, then has a heart attack while driving and kills someone then they are morally responsible

• If they were unconscious then their actions were not freely chosen

What is the 3rd necessity to be morally responsible?

• Moral agent must understand the difference between right and wrong

• Must have lived long enough to distinguish this - babies and young children can’t take moral or legal responsibility

• Must not be hindered by psychological disability - those with mental illness/ dementia may be unable to distinguish the difference

• Under pressure some may make decisions they wouldn’t otherwise have made

What are the 4 exemptions to knowledge of good?

1. They haven’t learned what it is

2. They’ve permanently forgotten it

3. They’ve temporarily forgotten it

4. They cannot understand it

What are the 3 main sources of morality?

1. We are born with it - some say we have an innate moral sense

2. Upbringing - We learn of morality from our social context, linked to culture and traditions

3. Religion - Each religion teaches fundamental moral principles

Summarise in a sentence what must be the case to be morally responsible

As long as you are a free conscious human agent that is fully aware of what is right and wrong then you are morally responsible

Who was Epicurus and what theory did he suggest?

• Was a Greek Philosopher

• Suggested that if we understood matter then we could predict what would happen

• Therefore we have no freedom of action but are entirely determined by forces outside of our control

What are the two ways hard determinism and libertarianism interact?

1. Incompatibilism = we are either free or determined but not both

2. Compatibilism = Scientific determinism is compatible with our experience of freedom, referred to as “soft determinism”

Give a quote by John Locke about freedom

“freedom is an illusion”

Explain Locke’s views on freedom with his example

• Gave the example of a man waking up in a locked room who tries to leave and believes he could by walking through the door but it is locked and he could never do so

• He is saying that we may believe we are free and feel we have many options but truthfully our moral choices are determined by forces out of our control

• Thus the man in the example THINKS he has chosen not to leave the room but that is just an illusion

Define Determinism

• The view that events and human affairs is the necessary consequence of previous states of affairs

• Essentially is the belief in cause and effect

Define Hard Determinism

• The view that because determinism is true no one has free will

• This means every event has a cause and this applies to both physical and mental events

• Every thought and decision is just a chain of events

What does hard determinism therefore suggest about moral responsibility?

Ethical choices don’t actually exist so we cannot be logically morally responsible for our actions

Give a quote by Baruch Spinoza about freedom?

“the feeling of freedom is ignorance”

Explain Spinoza’s views on freedom

• Said everything in the world is determined by physical causes so it’s not possible to be free

• We think ourselves free because we don’t know all the causes operating upon us

• If we knew all the things that happened to us then we’d understand our choices are determined

What is the difference between Locke and Spinoza?

We distinguish between freedom itself (Locke) and apparent freedom of the will (Spinoza)

Define psychological determinism

The view that psychological phenomena are determined by factors outside of a person’s control

What is psychological determinism sometimes ref as?

Behaviourism

Explain psychological determinism with an example

• Based on the idea that humans make decisions in accordance with their conditioning

• Pavlov experimented with classical conditioning

• He used a dog, first providing it with the unconditioned stimulus (food) producing the unconditioned response (salivating)

• Then rang a bell (conditioned stimulus) while showing the food = dog salivated

• Then he rang the bell without giving the food and the dog salivated = the conditioned response

• This response was trained into it out of its control

Who was B.F Skinner and what were his ideas?

• American psychologist

• Developed on Pavlov’s ideas saying that all actions depend on consequences of previous actions

• Eg: if an action has a good consequence then we repeat it but if bad then we avoid it

• His ideas on conditioning derived from animal experiments

• His approach was RADICAL BEHAVIOURISM = involves all aspects of mental activity

What does Skinner deny?

• The existence of purpose and intention and the existence of free will

• He believed determinism is “complete”

How have people criticised Skinner’s Radical Behaviourism?

• Noam Chomsky dismissed his ideas as “futile speculation”

• He assumes that animal behaviour explains much more complex human behaviour

• If all our actions are conditioned by genetics+ the environment then his thesis is also just a conditioned response - why should we listen?

Define theological determinism

A view of hard determinism that is rooted in the Christian idea that God is omniscient

Explain theological determinism

• An omniscient God must know all past, present and future of the universe and humanity

• Calvin concluded some will go to heaven others to hell

• This view isn’t well supported as it portrays God as immoral knowing some people are destined to go to hell

• Without predestination, God’s foreknowledge still poses a problem as if he knows we will do “x” then we can’t avoid doing it

What is the conclusion of theological determinism?

If this is the case, freedom is an illusion and all physical and mental events are determined by God

List some of the issues with theological determinism

• If there’s no God it doesn’t exist

• If God is timeless then he may be able to foresee the results of our FREE future actions but not cause them

• If God is temporal (in time) so can’t know the future so theological determinism fails

• Process theologians see God and the universe as one entity so as the future is yet to happen he wouldn’t know it and is not a threat to our free will

Define Libertarianism

The view that, despite restraint from genetics and the environment, human beings are free moral agents

What does libertarianism then suggest about moral responsibility?

• We are free to act thus morally responsible

• Moral actions are a result of the values and character of the moral agent

Explain fully what liberatarianism means with ref to Descartes

• All forms of determinism are false

• Most libertarians are mind-body dualists following Descartes’ ideas that the mind is a separate substance from the body and is able to act freely in the physical world

• Descartes argues that the nature of the mind is dif to the body so one can exist without the other

• Thus the mind can be free even if the body is not

Give an example of libertarian views

• A kleptomaniac may be conditioned to steal but they may or may not steal

• Even though they are disposed to act a certain way, if they have the option to say no then they are free

In what ways does libertarianism acknowledge we are not totally free?

• Physical limitations - We are incapable of doing certain things physically

• Psychological limitations - A psych. motivation will have a bearing on one’s choices

• Social limitations - We are all limited by financial, social and political structures

What do libertarians say is a convincing piece of evidence for their belief?

Feeling guilt suggests we are free as we experience a sense of moral responsibility

What is the common sense argument?

Determinists say that the sense of freedom is an illusion but libertarians response is that if it is an illusion it is a very persistent one

How is libertarianism also different to determinism?

Libertarianism is forward looking while determinism looks back at past events

Define incompatibilism

The view that determinism and libertarianism are incompatible as a deterministic universe has no room for free will so we must chose or or the other

Define compatibilism

Often called “soft determinism” is the view that human freedom and moral responsibility are compatible with determinism

Who invented Compatibilism?

Thomas Hobbes

What was Hobbes’ argument?

• We may have metaphysical chains that led to the effects in our lives but as long as we don’t have physical chains we are still free!

• Eg: someone holding a gun to your head is a physical chain meaning you’re not free

• Otherwise, you are somewhat determined but essentially free

How did Hume support compatibilism?

• Compatibilism says we can be shaped by phydical/ other laws and at the same time be free enough to make choices

• He thinks we have “liberty of spontaneity” rather than “liberty of indifference”

How does Hume differentiate between liberty of spontaneity and liberty of indifference?

1. Liberty of indifference = being free of causal necessity ( a chain of cause and effect)

2. Liberty of spontaneity = kind of liberty consistent with necessity (chain of cause and effect) which is the ability to do what you want

Explain Hume’s constant conjunction

• When we look at nature, A constantly is accompanied by B eg throw a brick at a window (A) and it will constantly shatter (B)

• Since these things always happen together our mind assume A will always come with B

• However this kind of conjunction isn’t logically necessary as no matter how many bricks we throw, it’s possible that the glass won’t break

• So we can’t talk about necessary laws of cause and effect in nature as that understanding of “necessity” is too strong

• All we actually find in nature is “constant conjunction” - B constantly follows A

Where else does Hume say we find constant conjunction?

• Human nature

• we agree people are pretty consistent in their nature saying people don’t change

• However it is logically possible for someone to act out of character

How does Hume argue liberty requires necessity?

• People rely on each other so much there’s hardly anything that can be done without referencing others

• Eg: a man grows vegetables and expects to sell it for a reasonable price, if someone tries to steal he expects the justice system to help him and if he needs to travel he expects to be able to get a bus/ car

• This regularity shows that free will and cause & effect are compatible and thus liberty requires necessity

• Thus as constant conjunction is found in both nature and human nature, Hume sees physical events and human wishes as one operation

• The actions of the will and natural causes form one linked chain

How, then, does Hume define free will?

By liberty, we can only mean a power of acting according to the determination of this will. If we choose to rest we may, if we choose to move we may. This belongs to everyone who isn’t a prisoner in chains.

What is freedom according to compatibilism?

• Thinking what I like

• Saying what I like

• Doing what I like

• Meeting whom I like

• Going where I like

• It is “doing as I desire” rather than “choosing what I desire” = liberty of spontaneity

What are some arguments against determinism?

• No conclusive evidence

• For non-religious people, theological determinism fails and for religious people it challenges the idea of a benevolent God

How can determinism be supported?

• Benjamin Libet said thoughts seem to cause actions but experiments dispute that

• His experiment showed that the conscious decision didn’t cause the movement, instead brain activity causing the movement started before the individual willed anything to happen

• This implies that will isn’t under individual control but is the result of determined electrical brain processes

What did Libet say we have?

• Not free will but “free won’t”

• If we can still choose to not do something, we are free

What arguments support libertarianism?

• We constantly experience ourselves being free

• If hard determinism is true then discussing if we’re free is pointless

• We feel guilt

• Those who say we’re determined are making determined statements

• Determinism leads to feeling out of control and can be harmful to mental health

What are the two approaches to reward and punishment?

1. Crime is a mental condition: an illness that can be treated

2. Crime is a deliberately anti-social behaviour and should be punished

Explain the first view of crime

• Accepts that there are some determining factors making it impossible to blame an individual eg being brought up around domestic violence and sexual abuse

• Lack of education = may not know right from wrong

• Treatment should aim for helping rather than retribution

• Harsh sentences often lead to reoffences

• Rehabilitation offers chance to better themselves, can be seen as a reward

Explain the 2nd view of crime

• Punishment may be used as retribution as it compensates the victim somewhat

• Signifies society’s disapproval of crime - is a deterrent

• Enforces moral responsibility, if they’re not punished they may reoffend

• Reforming criminals is expensive

• We need to be protected from criminals

Which theory fits with the first approach to crime and why?

• Determinism, as punishment is pointless given all acts (even criminal) are determined

• Also challenges sin as no one can be punished in hell if actions determined

• Makes Christian doctrine pointless - good behaviour shouldn’t be rewarded with heaven and Jesus’ atonement for human sin is pointless

What did Skinner say regarding crime?

• “it should be possible to live in a world where behaviour likely to be punished seldom or never occurs”

• Psychological conditioning can direct people away from committing crime

How would libertarians criticise Skinner?

They would say that his recommendation about punishment is acknowledging that we do have the freedom to do otherwise so Skinner is a “closet libertarian”

Which theory corresponds to the second view on crime?

• Libertarians will hold people responsible for their actions so praise and blame led us to be morally responsible

• If we see people as simply products of their environment then that is to treat them as objects without dignity

• They acknowledge things such as being a child/ suffering from depression and these are taken into account by defence lawyers

• However once all is considered, if they’re regarded as free then they will be punished

What did Kant argue about freedom?

• Said “ought implies can”

• We feel guilt thus we’re free

• We are mentally free to follow moral law and physically free to do as we please

• If there were no laws we’d be less free because others could use violence against us

What does Kant argue is necessary to be free?

To have external freedom we need to live under the rule of law where we can have the max freedom that co-exists with the freedom of other people

What are the weaknesses of the libertarian approach?

• If determinism is true then libertarianism is just another determined response to morality

• Some are conditioned to believe they’re causally determined, others believe they’re causally free

• Whether libs support retribution or deterrence doesn’t matter as all are determined

How does the Compatibilist view differ to the other two regarding reward and punishment?

• A determinist would say they couldn’t have done otherwise, not responsible

• A libertarian would say they could have, thus repsonsible

• A compataibilist would say yes I could have done otherwise IF I DESIRED

Why do compatibilists see themselves as morally responsible?

1. Moral choices aren’t a result of physical restraints/ coercion

2. They wanted to act that way even knowing they could have done otherwise

What is Hume’s view on reward and punishment?

• People can only be blamed when the choice comes from their character

• His approach is utilitarian, aimed to improve society

• Is in line with lib view - fear of punishment represses anti-social behaviour and rewards virtuous character

How does this explain Hume’s view on heaven and hell?

• He disagreed with it as humans don’t fit neatly into “good” or “evil” categories but rather “float between virtue and vice”

• Punishment must therefore be proportionate to the crime

• Thus heaven and hell are senseless as they’re disproportionate to human good and evil

What is the first issue with compatibilism?

• Punishment should be proportionate to the severity of the crime

• While determinism and comp lean to therapeutic models of punishment, libs say punishment has to fit the crime

• Otherwise may feel that the justice system negelcts victims to look after criminals

What is the 2nd issue with compatibilism?

• Strong suspicion that comp is incoherent

• Hume admitted causal determinism may be true

• Constant conjunction is rejected by libs and dets

• Dets say B will always follow A and libs say determinism of the will is an incoherent idea