F o P S test 3

People generally remember

People generally remember

• 10% of what they READ

• 20% of what they HEAR

• 30% of what they SEE

• 50% of what they HEAR and SEE

• 70% of what they SAY

• 90% of what they SAY as they DO a thing

Visual Aids Add

• clarity

• interest

• retention

• credibility

• persuasiveness

7 kinds of Visual Aids

1. objects & models

2. photos & drawings

3. graphs

4. charts

5. video

6. the speaker

7. presentation technology

Photos & Drawings

• enlarges it for the audience

• avoid passing it around

• display with presentation technology

Graphs

are used to show statistical trends & patterns

3 Types of Graphs

1. line graph

2. pie graph

3. bar graph

Line Graph

uses one or more lines to show changes over time

Pie Graph

highlights segments of circle to show distribution patterns

Bar Graph

uses vertical or horizontal bars to show comparisons

Advantages of charts

• summarize large block of info, usually as a list

• help listeners visualize the info

• show steps of process (how to)

• help keep it simple & clear

Video

can add tremendous impact

Guidelines for Video

• use short clips (30 seconds)

• cue to start of clip

• integrate it smoothly- embed it

• avoid low-resolution

• cite the source

• confirm its legitimate

The Speaker

• you can use your own body as a visual aid

  • use body to demonstrate procedure

  • practice to coordinate your words and actions

    • may need to have items prepared ahead of time

Presentation Technology

allows you to combine several audio-visual materials

Presentation Technology Guidelines

• use strategically

• use to enhance specific points

• don’t overpower presentation

  • should NOT be more about graphics than content

• don’t read from screen

Guidelines for Preparing Visual Aids

• prepare well in advance

• keep it simple

• make sure large enough to see

• limit amount of text

• use fonts effectively

• use color effectively

• use images strategically

Limited Text

general rule for slides with just text is to limit no more than half-dozen lines of type

Effective Fonts

avoid decorative fonts

Guidelines for Selecting Fonts

• clear, easy to read

• normal case

• two font types per slide

• standardized across slides

• properly sized and consistent titles and body text

Effective Colors

color can dramatically increase the impact of visual aids when used effectively

• high contrast

• easy to see

• limited number of color

• consistent color use across slides

Strategic Images

never add images to a slide unless they are truly needed

Guidelines for Images

• large enough

• high-resolution

• clear, simple

• title included on the slide

Presenting Visual Aids

• display where listeners can see

• avoid passing out to audience

• display only while discussing

• explain clearly, concisely

• talk to audience, not to visual aid

• practice with visual aids

• check room & equipment

Persuasion

the process of reinforcing or changing people’s beliefs or actions

Advocate

you act as______________ when you speak to persuade.

Effective Persuasion

depends on the speaker’s ability to convince the audience to follow his/her recommendations or instructions

The Art of Persuasion

• it is about giving people a reason to listen and then providing them with the right information in the right way so they can alter their existing point of view.

• was formalized and developed by Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle

• they said it was the most important public speaking skill for citizens to have

Coercion

when people are forced to think a certain way or feel compelled to act under pressure or threat, they are NOT being persuaded

China’s Social Credit System

a ranking system that monitors your behavior and ranks you on your behavior that positively supports the Communist party and/or punishes you for infractions which include bad driving, smoking in non-smoking zones, buying too many video games and posting anti-government views.

Cancel Culture

a form of public shaming that calls for boycotts of individuals, celebrities or organizations that are deemed to have a bad behavior or one that is opposite of their position

Liberating Tolerance

a Marxist/socialist doctrine, is defined as having intolerance against movements from the right but total tolerance of movements from the left.

Manipulation

using dishonest tactics such as:

• omitting crucial evidence

• presenting inaccurate or false information

• intentionally misrepresenting research to your advantage

  • COVID data might fall into this category

Ethical Goals

must be sound and defensible

Ethical Methods

must be honest and avoid abusive language

Persuasion is

• chosen

• honest

• advocate for or against a certain position

• practical or issue-based

• speaker has role of promoter or proponent

Persuasion is NOT

• coercion or forced

• manipulation or misleading/false info

• speaker remains neutral

• just the facts

How successful you are

depends above all on how you tailor you message to the values, attitudes, and beliefs of your audience

Persuasion

is something a speaker does with an audience, not to an audience

Mental Dialogue

the mental give and take between speaker and listener

• audience can have both positive and negative reactions

• speaker MUST think about possible objections or barriers when preparing speech

Target Audience

the portion of audience the speaker most wants to persuade. Most likely, those in the center with moderate beliefs and not the ones who have extreme positions for or against.

3 Major Kinds of Persuasive Speeches

1. Question of fact

2. Question of value

3. Question of policy

Question of Fact

a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion/ viewpoint

• speaker picks a side, “FOR or AGAINST”

• draws a conclusion

• must support conclusion with facts

Organizational Patterns Used with Question of Fact

• chronological

• spatial

• topical

• cause-and-effect

Question of Value

a question about the worth, “rightness” of an idea or action

• asks the audience to believe a certain way

• doesn’t try to prove something as true or false, but argues the “right” or “wrong”/ “good” or “bad” of an idea

• must justify opinion by establishing standards for the value judgement

• does not state what action should be taken

Organizational Patterns Used for Question of Value

• chronological

• spatial

• topical

Question of Policy

whether a course of action should or should not be taken

• urges listeners to choose a specific action

• shares how to solve a problem

• calls listeners to action

Organizational Patterns used in Question of Policy

• problem-solution

• problem-cause-solution

• Monroe’s motivated sequence

Passive Agreement Speech

is a persuasive speech where the speaker convinces the audience the policy is desirable but does NOT encourage action

Immediate Action Speech

a persuasive speech in which speaker convinces the audience to act in support of a particular policy

3 Basic Issues of Policy Speeches

1. Need

2. Plan

3. Practicality

Need

is there a problem (need) that requires change from the current policy?

Burden of Proof

obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove a policy change is necessary

Plan

if there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve it?

Practicality

will the speaker’s plan solve the problem, or will it create new issues?

4 Speech Patterns used for Policy Speeches

1. problem-solution

2. problem-cause-solution

3. comparative advantages

4. Monroe’s motivated sequence

Problem-Solution Order

a speech organization in which the 1st point deals with the existence of a problem and the 2nd point presents a solution

Problem-Cause-Solution Order

a speech organization in which the 1st point identifies a problem, the 2nd point analyzes the causes, and the 3rd point presents a solution

Comparative Advantage Order

a speech organization in which each main point explains why a speaker’s solution is preferable to other proposed solutions

• generally used when the audience already agrees that a problem exists

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

a 5-step sequence for speeches that seek immediate action. Must identify and respond to what will motivate an audience

4 Methods used to Persuade

1. built credibility

2. used evidence

3. sound reasoning

4. appealed to emotions

Credibility

perception of speaker’s competence & character

• ethos= Aristotle’s name for credibility

The more favorably listeners view a speaker, the more likely they are to accept the speaker’s message

Competence

the audience’s perception of the speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject

Character

the audience’s perception of the speaker’s sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience

3 Types of Credibility

1. initial

2. derived

3. terminal

Initial Credibility

credibility speaker had before the speech

Derived Credibility

credibility produced during the speech

Terminal Credibility

credibility at end of the speech

Enhancing Credibility

everything you say and do in a speech affects your credibility

3 Strategies for Enhancing Credibility

1. explain your competence

2. establish common ground

3. speak expressively, with conviction

   1. sincere, honest & straight forward is best

Argument

presenting claims and supporting them with evidence and reasoning

Claim

a position/assertion speaker wants the audience to accept

Evidence

supporting materials-- narratives, definitions, testimony, facts & statistics

Reasoning

the method/process used to represent the claim and arrive at argument’s conclusion

Evidence Types

• logos- appeals to logic

• ethos- appeals to credibility

• pathos- appeals to emotion

• mythos- appeals to cultural beliefs

Guidelines for using Evidence

• use specific evidence

• use novel (new) evidence

• use credible evidence

• make a clear point of evidence

  • don’t assume audience will get it

Reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

4 Methods of Resoning

1. specific instances (inductive)

2. principle (deductive)

3. causal

4. analogical

Specific Instances

moving from particular facts to general conclusion

Guidelines for using Specific Instances

• avoid hasty generalizations

• qualify argument when necessary

• reinforce argument with statistics, testimony

Reasoning from Principle

moving from a general principle to a specific conclusion

• opposite of specific reasoning

• also known as Deductive Reasoning

Guidelines for Reasoning from Principles

• use a major premise listeners will accept

• provide evidence for minor premise

Causal Reasoning

establishing relationship between causes and effects

Guidelines for Causal Reasoning

• avoid fallacy of false cause

• do not assume events have only one cause

Analogical Reasoning

speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for one case is also true for the other case

• cases must be essentially alike

Fallacies

an error in reasoning/ in your argument

• may first appear valid and reasonable

• upon inspection, fallacies do not hold up

10 Common Fallacies

1. Hasty Generalization

2. False Cause

3. Invalid Analogy

4. Bandwagon Fallacy

5. Red Herring

6. Ad Hominem

7. Either-or

8. Slippery Slop

9. Appeal to Tradition

10. Appeal to Novelty

Hasty Generalization

speaker jumps to conclusion on basis of too few facts or unusual cases

False Cause

speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event followed another, the first event caused the 2nd event

Invalid Analogy

when two cases being compared are NOT essentially alike

Bandwagon

assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable

Red Herring

introduces an irrelevant issue in order to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Ad Homineum

attacking the person rather than dealing with the real issue

Either-or

forcing choice between two alternative when more than two exist

Slippery Slope

assuming first step will lead to later steps that can’t be prevented

Appeal to Tradition

assuming something old is automatically better than new

Appeal to Novelty

assuming something new is automatically better than old

Emotional Appeals or Pathos

play an important part of persuasion

• appeals intended to evoke sadness, anger, happiness, pride, fear, etc.

3 Ways to Generate Emotional Appeal

1. use emotionally charged language (politics)

2. use vivid examples (paint a picture)

3. speak with sincerity and conviction (heartfelt)

Emotional Appeals

have potential power; therefore, they need to be used with a strong sense of ethical responsibility

• make sure appropriate to topic

• don’t substitute emotion or your opinion for evidence, reasoning

Special Occasion Speeches

are different than normal speeches. They include these types of events:

• christenings & funerals

• weddings

• graduations & retirements

• award ceremonies

• inaugurals