IB Psychology Final Exam Notes

Describe

Give a detailed account.

Identify

Provide an answer from a number of possibilities.

Outline

Give a brief account or summary.

Explain

Give a detailed account including reasons or causes.

Localization of function

The theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors or cognitive processes.

Broca’s area

Region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system involved in emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system crucial for memory formation.

Prefrontal cortex

Involved in higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, and working memory.

Corpus callosum

A band of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain.

Strict localization

The idea that there is a one-to-one correspondence between brain areas and functions.

Lateralization

The idea that some functions are primarily processed in one hemisphere of the brain.

Relative localization

Acknowledges that one brain area is more important than others for a certain function, but not exclusively (more realistic than strict localization).

Principle of mass action

Karl Lashley's idea that the extent of damage to the brain determines the degree of impairment, not the location.

Equipotentiality

Specific areas can take over functions of damaged areas.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.

Dendrites

Extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

Axon

A long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body.

Dendritic branching

The formation of new branches on dendrites, which increases the number of synapses a neuron can form.

Neural networks

Groups of interconnected neurons that fire together to perform a specific function.

Neural pathways

The routes through the nervous system that nerve impulses travel.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where signals are transmitted.

Synaptic pruning

The process of eliminating weaker synaptic connections while strengthening the important ones during development.

Glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support and protect neurons.

Cortical remapping

The process by which the brain reassigns cortical areas to other functions in response to experience or injury.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and fMRI (functional MRI)

Techniques that use magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain's structure and activity.

PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

Imaging technique that uses radioactive tracers to measure brain activity.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons across synapses.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential.

Threshold of excitation

The level of depolarization that a neuron must reach in order to fire an action potential.

Action potential

A rapid, temporary change in electrical potential across a neuron's membrane that transmits a signal.

Synaptic cleft

The small gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Receptor

A protein on the surface of a neuron that binds to neurotransmitters.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the presynaptic neuron.

Agonist

A substance that binds to a receptor and activates it, mimicking the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A substance that binds to a receptor and blocks it, preventing a neurotransmitter from activating it.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation, and motor control.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to target cells.

Pheromones

Chemical signals that are released by an individual and elicit a response in another individual of the same species.

Putative human pheromone

AND (Androstadienone) and EST (Estratetraenol).

Vomeronasal organ (VNO)

An auxiliary olfactory sense organ that is present in many animals and is believed to detect pheromones.

Accessory olfactory bulb

A neural structure that receives input from the VNO.

Main olfactory bulb

The primary brain structure responsible for processing smells.

Nature and nurture

The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping behavior.

Chromosomes and DNA

Structures in the cell nucleus that contain DNA, the genetic material that carries information about an organism's traits.

Genes

Units of heredity that are composed of DNA and encode for specific traits.

Alleles

Different versions of a gene.

Phenotype

The observable characteristics of an organism.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism.

MAOA gene

A gene that codes for an enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can alter gene expression without changing the DNA sequence.

Evolution

The process by which populations of organisms change over time.

Differential fitness

The idea that individuals with certain traits are more likely to survive and reproduce than individuals with other traits.

Natural selection

The process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population over time.

Multi-Store Memory Model

A model that describes memory as a system with three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

A brief storage system for sensory information.

Short-Term Memory

A temporary storage system for information that is currently being used.

Long-Term Memory

A storage system for information that is stored for long periods of time.

Attention

The process of focusing on specific information in the environment.

Rehearsal

The process of repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Transfer

The process of moving information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

Retrieval

The process of bringing information from long-term memory into conscious awareness.

Working Memory Model

A model that describes short-term memory as a system with multiple components: central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer.

Central Executive

A control system that manages the other components of working memory.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A storage system for visual and spatial information.

Phonological Loop

A storage system for verbal information.

Episodic Buffer

A storage system that integrates information from the other components of working memory and links it to long-term memory.

Schema Theory

A theory that suggests that knowledge is organized into schemas, which are mental frameworks that represent our understanding of the world.

Cognitive schema

A mental framework that organizes and interprets information.

Top-down processing

Information processing that is guided by prior knowledge and expectations.

Bottom-up processing

Information processing that is driven by sensory input.

System 1 Thinking

A fast, intuitive, and emotional mode of thinking.

System 2 Thinking

A slow, deliberate, and analytical mode of thinking.

Reconstructive memory

The idea that memory is not a perfect recording of events but is instead a reconstruction that can be influenced by various factors.

Misleading questions

Questions that contain information that is not accurate or that suggests a particular answer.

False memories

Memories of events that never actually happened.

Post-event information

Information that is presented after an event that can alter memories of the event.

Cognitive biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.

The anchoring effect

The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the “anchor”) when making decisions.

Flashbulb memory

A vivid and detailed memory of a surprising and emotionally arousing event.

Social identity theory

A theory that suggests that people's sense of self is based on their membership in social groups.

Out-group homogeneity

The tendency to view members of out-groups as more similar to each other than members of in-groups.

Positive distinctiveness

The motivation to make one's in-group appear positive and different from out-groups.

Self-esteem hypothesis

The idea that individuals are motivated to maintain or enhance their self-esteem, and that group membership can contribute to self-esteem.

In-group bias

The tendency to favor members of one's in-group over members of out-groups.

Minimal group paradigm

An experimental procedure in which individuals are assigned to groups based on arbitrary or minimal criteria.

Definition of stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people.

Social Cognitive Theory

A theory that suggests that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling.

Observational learning

Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.

Culture

The shared beliefs, values, and practices of a group of people.

Social norms

The rules and expectations for behavior in a particular culture.

Conformity

The tendency to adjust one's behavior or thinking to match the group standard.

Enculturation

The process by which individuals learn and adopt the norms and values of their culture.

Acculturation

The process of cultural and psychological change that results from contact between different cultures.

Assimilation

One of Berry’s acculturation strategies: accepting majority culture, relinquishing own culture.

Integration

One of Berry’s acculturation strategies: integrating into majority culture with retention of own culture

Seperation

One of Berry’s acculturation strategies: avoiding contact with majority culture.

Marginalization

One of Berry’s acculturation strategies: not integrated with own culture or majority culture.