IB Psychology Final Exam Notes

IB Psychology Final Paper 1- Section A

• 3 SAQ’s (One from each unit)
• IB 1- June 12th @1:00 pm
• IB 2- June 10th @1:00 pm

Command Terms

• Describe: Give a detailed account.
• Identify: Provide an answer from a number of possibilities.
• Outline: Give a brief account or summary.
• Explain: Give a detailed account including reasons or causes.

Unit 1: Biological Approaches to Behavior

1. Localization of Function

• Localization of function: The theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors or cognitive processes.
• Broca’s area: Region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.
• Amygdala: Part of the limbic system involved in emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
• Hippocampus: Part of the limbic system crucial for memory formation.
• Prefrontal cortex: Involved in higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, and working memory.
• Corpus callosum: A band of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain.
• Strict localization: The idea that there is a one-to-one correspondence between brain areas and functions.
• Lateralization: The idea that some functions are primarily processed in one hemisphere of the brain.
• Relative localization: Acknowledges that one brain area is more important than others for a certain function, but not exclusively (more realistic than strict localization).
• Principle of mass action: Karl Lashley's idea that the extent of damage to the brain determines the degree of impairment, not the location.
• Equipotentiality: Specific areas can take over functions of damaged areas.

Key Studies:

• Broca (Patient Tan): Demonstrated the role of Broca's area in speech production.
• Feinstein et al (Patient SM): Studied a patient with amygdala damage showed the role of the amygdala in experiencing fear.
• Sperry et al (Split-brain patients): Investigated the effects of severing the corpus callosum on perception and communication.
• Lashley (Localization of memory on rats): Sought to find location of memory in the brain, but determined that memory was distributed rather than localized.

2. Neuroplasticity

• Neuroplasticity: The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.
• Neuron: A nerve cell that transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.
• Dendrites: Extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
• Axon: A long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body.
• Dendritic branching: The formation of new branches on dendrites, which increases the number of synapses a neuron can form.
• Neural networks: Groups of interconnected neurons that fire together to perform a specific function.
• Neural pathways: The routes through the nervous system that nerve impulses travel.
• Synapse: The junction between two neurons where signals are transmitted.
• Synaptic pruning: The process of eliminating weaker synaptic connections while strengthening the important ones during development.
• Glial cells: Cells in the nervous system that support and protect neurons.
• Cortical remapping: The process by which the brain reassigns cortical areas to other functions in response to experience or injury.

Key Studies:

• Perry and Pollard (effects of global neglect on the brains of children): Studied the effects of neglect on brain development.
• Rosenzweig and Bennet (effects of impoverished vs enriched environments in rats brains): Studied the impact of environmental enrichment on brain plasticity. Showed that rats in enriched environments developed thicker cortexes and more synapses than those in impoverished environments.

3. Brain Imaging Technology

• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and fMRI (functional MRI): Techniques that use magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain's structure and activity.
  • How it works: MRI uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain. fMRI detects changes in blood flow to different areas of the brain, indicating neural activity.
  • Benefits: High resolution, non-invasive, can detect structural abnormalities and brain activity.
  • Challenges: Expensive, can be susceptible to artifacts, fMRI has limited temporal resolution
• PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): Imaging technique that uses radioactive tracers to measure brain activity.
  • How it works: A radioactive tracer is injected into the bloodstream, and the PET scanner detects the tracer's distribution in the brain, indicating areas of high metabolic activity.
  • Benefits: Can measure specific neurotransmitter activity, can detect diseases like cancer.
  • Challenges: Exposure to radiation, lower resolution than MRI, expensive.
• Limitations of both: Can be expensive, limited ecological validity.

Key Studies:

• Perry and Pollard (MRI)
• Raine (Brains of murderers and non-violent people: PET Scan): Demonstrated differences in brain activity between murderers and non-violent individuals.

4. Neurotransmission

• Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons across synapses.
• Excitatory neurotransmitters: Increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential.
• Inhibitory neurotransmitters: Decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential.
• Process of neurotransmission: The process by which neurons communicate with each other.
  • Threshold of excitation: The level of depolarization that a neuron must reach in order to fire an action potential.
  • Action potential: A rapid, temporary change in electrical potential across a neuron's membrane that transmits a signal.
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  • Synaptic cleft: The small gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
  • Receptor: A protein on the surface of a neuron that binds to neurotransmitters.
  • Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the presynaptic neuron.
• Meaning of agonist and antagonist:
  • Agonist: A substance that binds to a receptor and activates it, mimicking the effects of a neurotransmitter.
  • Antagonist: A substance that binds to a receptor and blocks it, preventing a neurotransmitter from activating it.
• Dopamine: A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation, and motor control.

Key Study: Fisher et al (Dopamine and romantic love): Found that dopamine activity increased in the brains of individuals in love when they looked at pictures of their beloved.

5. Hormones

• Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to target cells.
• How they differ from neurotransmitters: Neurotransmitters act locally and rapidly, whereas hormones act more slowly and have more widespread effects.
• Where they are produced: Endocrine glands (e.g., pituitary gland, adrenal glands, thyroid gland).
• Hormonal release process: Hormones are released in response to signals from the brain or other glands, and they travel through the bloodstream to target cells.
• Examples: Cortisol (stress), melatonin (sleep), testosterone (sexual development and behavior).

Key Study: Nagsawa et al (Oxytocin and human-dog bonds): Showed that oxytocin levels increased in both humans and dogs during positive interactions.

6. Pheromones

• Pheromones: Chemical signals that are released by an individual and elicit a response in another individual of the same species.
• Role of pheromones: Mate attraction, alarm signaling, territory marking.
• Putative human pheromone: AND (Androstadienone) and EST (Estratetraenol).
• Vomeronasal organ (VNO): An auxiliary olfactory sense organ that is present in many animals and is believed to detect pheromones.
• Accessory olfactory bulb: A neural structure that receives input from the VNO.
• Main olfactory bulb: The primary brain structure responsible for processing smells.
• Arguments for and against their presence in humans: Some studies suggest that humans can detect and respond to pheromones, while others have found no evidence for this.

Key Study: Savic et al (Pheromones and sexual attraction): Found that AND activated the hypothalamus in women and EST activated the hypothalamus in men.

7. Genetics and Behavior

• Nature and nurture: The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping behavior.
• Chromosomes and DNA: Chromosomes are structures in the cell nucleus that contain DNA, the genetic material that carries information about an organism's traits.
• Genes: Units of heredity that are composed of DNA and encode for specific traits.
  • Alleles: Different versions of a gene.
  • Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an organism.
  • Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism.
• Genetic similarity: The degree to which two individuals share the same genes.
• MAOA gene: A gene that codes for an enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine.
• Epigenetics: The study of how environmental factors can alter gene expression without changing the DNA sequence.

Key Study: Caspi et al (Warrior gene and aggression): Showed that individuals with a low-activity version of the MAOA gene were more likely to exhibit antisocial behavior if they had experienced childhood maltreatment.

8. Evolutionary Psychology

• Evolution: The process by which populations of organisms change over time.
• Differential fitness: The idea that individuals with certain traits are more likely to survive and reproduce than individuals with other traits.
• Survival of the fittest: A misleading term that suggests that the strongest or most aggressive individuals are the most likely to survive; in reality, it is the individuals who are best adapted to their environment who are most likely to survive and reproduce.
• Natural selection: The process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population over time.

Key Study: Curtis et al (evolutionary explanation for disgust): Found that disgust responses were stronger in response to stimuli that were associated with disease.

Unit 2: Cognitive Approaches to Behavior

1. Multi-Store Memory Model

• Multi-Store Memory Model: A model that describes memory as a system with three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
  • Sensory Memory: A brief storage system for sensory information.
  • Short-Term Memory: A temporary storage system for information that is currently being used.
  • Long-Term Memory: A storage system for information that is stored for long periods of time.
  • Attention: The process of focusing on specific information in the environment.
  • Rehearsal: The process of repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.
  • Transfer: The process of moving information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
  • Retrieval: The process of bringing information from long-term memory into conscious awareness.

Key Study: Scoville and Milner- Henry Molaison’s case: HM's case study provided significant insights into the role of the hippocampus in memory formation.

2. Working Memory Model

• Working Memory Model: A model that describes short-term memory as a system with multiple components: central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer.
  • Central Executive: A control system that manages the other components of working memory.
  • Visuospatial sketchpad: A storage system for visual and spatial information.
  • Phonological Loop: A storage system for verbal information.
  • Episodic Buffer: A storage system that integrates information from the other components of working memory and links it to long-term memory.

Key Studies:

• Baddeley 1975a- Evidence for the phonological loop and articulatory process
• Baddeley 1975b- Baddeley 1975b: Evidence for the visuospatial sketchpad.

3. Schema Theory

• Schema Theory: A theory that suggests that knowledge is organized into schemas, which are mental frameworks that represent our understanding of the world.
  • Cognitive schema: A mental framework that organizes and interprets information.
  • Types of schemas: Social Schemas, Scripts, Self-schemas.
  • Top-down processing vs. Bottom-up processing:
    • Top-down processing: Information processing that is guided by prior knowledge and expectations.
    • Bottom-up processing: Information processing that is driven by sensory input.

Key Study: Anderson and Pichert- Schemas influence retrieval

4. Thinking and Decision Making

• System 1 Thinking: A fast, intuitive, and emotional mode of thinking.
  • Characteristics: Automatic, effortless, associative, implicit.
  • Advantages: Fast, efficient.
  • Disadvantages: Prone to biases and errors.
• System 2 Thinking: A slow, deliberate, and analytical mode of thinking.
  • Characteristics: Controlled, effortful, deductive, explicit.
  • Advantages: More accurate, less prone to biases.
  • Disadvantages: Slow, effortful.

Key Study: Alter and Oppenheimer- How font affects thinking.

6. Reliability of Cognitive Processes - Reconstructive Memory

• Reconstructive memory: The idea that memory is not a perfect recording of events but is instead a reconstruction that can be influenced by various factors.
• Explanation of reconstructive memory: Memory is an active process of reconstruction, rather than a passive retrieval of stored information.
• Misleading questions: Questions that contain information that is not accurate or that suggests a particular answer.
• False memories: Memories of events that never actually happened.
• Post-event information: Information that is presented after an event that can alter memories of the event.

Key Study: Loftus and Palmer “Eyewitness Study”

7. Reliability of Cognitive Processes - Biases in thinking and decision making

• Cognitive biases: Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.
• The anchoring effect: The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the “anchor”) when making decisions.
  • Definition: A cognitive bias that occurs when individuals use an initial piece of information to make subsequent judgments.
  • Examples:
  • Explanations:

Key Study: Strack and Mussweiler “Gandhi and the anchoring effect”

8. Emotion and Cognition- Flashbulb Memory

• Flashbulb memory: A vivid and detailed memory of a surprising and emotionally arousing event.
  • Model of formation: surprise, personal consequentiality
  • Model of maintenance: overt rehearsal, covert rehearsal
  • Neural basis: Amygdala

Key Studies:

• Sharot et al “Neural mechanisms of flashbulb memories”
• Neisser et al “Accuracy of flashbulb memories”

Unit 3: Sociocultural Approaches to Behavior

1. Social identity theory

• Social identity theory: A theory that suggests that people's sense of self is based on their membership in social groups.
  • Group formation: In-groups/out-groups
  • Steps of SIT: social categorization, social identity, social comparison
  • Out-group homogeneity: The tendency to view members of out-groups as more similar to each other than members of in-groups.
  • Positive distinctiveness: The motivation to make one's in-group appear positive and different from out-groups.
  • Self-esteem hypothesis: The idea that individuals are motivated to maintain or enhance their self-esteem, and that group membership can contribute to self-esteem.
  • In-group bias: The tendency to favor members of one's in-group over members of out-groups.
  • Minimal group paradigm: An experimental procedure in which individuals are assigned to groups based on arbitrary or minimal criteria.

Key Study: Tajfel “Intergroup discrimination”

2. Stereotypes and behavior

• Definition of stereotype: A generalized belief about a group of people.
• Formation of stereotypes: categorization, generalization
• Are stereotypes true?:
  • Campbell: grain of truth- personal experiences, gatekeepers
  • Hamilton: illusory correlation, confirmation bias
• Stereotype threat / stereotype boost:

Key Study: Shih et al- Stereotype susceptibility

3. Social Cognitive Theory

• Social Cognitive Theory: A theory that suggests that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling.
  • Observational learning: Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.
  • Reciprocal determinism:
    • Environment factors, person factors, behavior factors
    • Human agency
  • Components of SCT:
    • Attention
      • Model identification
    • Retention
    • Reproduction
      • Self-efficacy
    • Motivation
      • Rewards and punishments

Key Study: Bandura, Ross and Ross- Bobo Doll Experiment

4. Culture and behavior

• Culture: The shared beliefs, values, and practices of a group of people.
  • Social norms: The rules and expectations for behavior in a particular culture.
  • Conformity: The tendency to adjust one's behavior or thinking to match the group standard.
  • Cultural dimensions: Description / evaluation of Individualism vs collectivism

Key Study: Berry and Katz- the influence of individualism and collectivism on conformity

5. Enculturation

• Enculturation: The process by which individuals learn and adopt the norms and values of their culture.
  • Cultural transmission theory:
  • Direct tuition:
  • Participatory learning:
  • Observational learning:

Key Study: Odden and Rochat- observational learning as the mechanism of enculturation in some cultures

6. Acculturation

• Acculturation: The process of cultural and psychological change that results from contact between different cultures.
  • Berry’s model of acculturation:
    • Assimilation
    • Integration
    • Separation
    • Marginalization
  • Acculturative stress:

Key Study: Torres et al- Acculturation and Psychological Distress

Suggested structure for SAQs

• SAQs should be around 250-400 words, or one page to one and a half.
• 1. Introduction
  • State your arguments and evidence
• 2. Central argument
  • Define any key words / concepts in the question
  • Provide as much general knowledge on the topic as you can
  • Explain concepts in detail, breaking down each big idea into smaller ideas or steps
• 3. Supporting evidence
  • Describe the study, explaining its significance in answering the question
  • Aim, Procedure, Results and Conclusion
• 4. Conclusion
  • Explain why the results of this study matter. What does this study tell us?
  • Link back to the question

Rubric

Standard 1 - Knowledge and understanding

• EE 7-9 ME 4-6 AE 1-3 BE 0

Knowledge and understanding is accurate and addresses the main topics/ problems identified in the question. Knowledge and understanding is accurate but limited. Knowledge and understanding is mostly inaccurate or not relevant to the question. The answer does not reach a standard described by the descriptors on the left.

Q 1 3 2 1 0

Q 2 3 2 1 0

Q 3 3 2 1 0

Standard 2- Application and Analysis

• EE 7-9 ME 4-6 AE 1-3 BE 0

The response is supported by appropriate research which is described and explicitly linked to the question. The response is supported by appropriate research which is described. The research supporting the response is mostly not relevant to the question and if relevant only listed. The answer does not reach a standard described by the descriptors on the left.

Q 1 3 2 1 0

Q 2 3 2 1 0

Q 3 3 2 1 0

Standard 4- Selection and use of skills appropriate to psychology

• EE 7-9 ME 4-6 AE 1-3 BE 0

The response is fully focused on the question and meets the command term requirements. The response is relevant to the question, but does not meet the command term requirements. The response is of limited relevance to or only rephrases the question. Does not reach the standard described by the descriptors below.

Q 1 3 2 1 0

Q 2 3 2 1 0

Q 3 3 2 1 0

Total marks: IB Predicted: _

IMPORTANT INFORMATION

• Paper 1 has two sections: A and B. For this final we will only do Section A (three SAQs). Section B requires you to write an essay, and we will prepare for it at the beginning of Year 2.
• For Paper 1- Section A, it is not required that you evaluate research, so Research Methodology won’t be included as a topic for this final exam.
• HL only topics (Animal Research, Technology and Cognition, Globalization and Behavior) are only relevant for Paper 1- Section B, so they will not be included as topics for this final. However, it’s a good idea to always keep them in mind:
• You will get an early predicted grade based on this final exam.

Sample Questions

This is not an exhaustive list, and questions may be phrased differently.

Unit 1

• Describe the use of one technique used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.
• Explain one example of neuroplasticity.
• With reference to one study, explain neural pruning.
• Explain the effect of one neurotransmitter on behaviour.
• Using one or more examples, explain localization of function.
• Explain how one hormone affects human behaviour.
• Outline one study related to pheromones and behaviour.
• Describe one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.
• Explain how genes may affect one behaviour.

Unit 2

• Describe one model of memory.
• Outline the multi-store model of memory.
• Describe the working memory model.
• Explain schema theory.
• Describe one theory of thinking and decision making.
• Outline one study on the reliability of one cognitive process.
• Explain one theory or study relevant to reconstructive memory.
• Explain one bias in thinking and decision making
• Explain the influence of emotion on one cognitive process.

Unit 3

• Explain social identity theory.
• Explain how stereotypes may influence behavior
• Describe social cognitive theory
• Outline one cultural dimension
• Explain the influence of culture on behavior
• Describe enculturation and its confluence on behavior
• Identify one example of the influence of acculturation on behavior