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Ottoman, Russia, China, Japan common problems
Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign threats
Internal weakness due to economic problems, financial difficulties, and corruption
Ottoman, Russia, China, Japan reform efforts
Attempts at political and educational reform and at industrialization
Turned to western models
Ottoman, Russia, China, Japan results of reform
Ottoman empire, Russia, and China unsuccessful; societies on the verge of collapse
Reform in Japan was more thorough; Japan emerged as an industrial power
The nature of decline in the ottoman empire
Military decline since the late seventeenth century
Extensive territorial losses in nineteenth century
Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century
The "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy
Ottoman military decline since the late seventeenth century
Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training
Janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined
Provincial governors gained power, private armies
Extensive territorial losses in nineteenth century
Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia; western frontiers to Austria; Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia
Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed campaign in 1798 \n (a) Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a powerful, modern army \n (b) Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt an autonomous province
Muhammad Ali
who built a powerful army modeled on European forces and ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848.
He also launched a program of industrialization, concentrating on cotton textiles and arma- ments.
By 1820, though still subordinate to the Ottomans, it was clear he ruled Egypt.
In 1839 he even invaded Syria and Anatolia, threatening to capture Istanbul and topple the Ottoman state.
Transformed Egypt into an autonomous state.
Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century
Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin
Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods
Heavily depended on foreign loans, half of the revenues paid to loan interest
Foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882
The "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy
Extraterritoriality: Europeans exempt from Ottoman law within the empire
Could operate tax-free, levy their own duties in Ottoman ports
Deprived empire of desperately needed income
Capitulations
agreements that exempted European visitors from Ottoman law and provided European powers with extraterritoriality—the right to exercise jurisdiction over their own citizens according to their own laws.
Began in 16th c. when Ottoman sultans signed capitulation treaties to avoid the burden of ad- ministering justice for communities of foreign merchants.
By the nine- teenth century, Ottoman officials regarded the capitulations as humiliating intrusions on their sovereignty.
Capitulations also served as instruments of economic power by European businesspeople who established tax-exempt banks and commercial enterprises in the Ottoman Empire, and they permit- ted foreign governments to levy du- ties on goods sold in Ottoman ports.
Ottoman reform and reorganization
Attempt to reform military led to violent Janissary revolt (1807-1808)
Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839) became sultan after revolt
Legal and educational reforms of the Tanzimat ("reorganization") era (1839-1876)
Opposition to Tanzimat reforms
Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839) became sultan after revolt
When Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed; cleared the way for reforms
He built an European-style army, academies, schools, roads, and telegraph
Legal and educational reforms of the Tanzimat ("reorganization") era (1839-1876)
Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to strengthen state. Wanted to reform Ottoman law to European liking so that capitulations were lifted and Ottomans recovered soveriegnty.
Broad legal reforms, reformers issued a com-
mercial code (1850), a penal code (1858), a maritime code (1863), and a new civil code (1870–1876) modeled after French legal system. All Ottomans equal before the law despite if Muslim or not.
State reform of education (1846, a complete system of primary and secondary schools leading to university-level instruction), free and compulsory primary education (1869)
Undermined authority of the ulama (previously in charge of legal and educational systems), enhanced the state authority
Opposition to Tanzimat reforms
Religious conservatives critical of attack on Islamic law and tradition
Legal equality for minorities resented by some, even a few minority leaders
Young Ottomans wanted more reform: freedom, autonomy, decentralization
High-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks on the sultan's power
The Young Turk Era
Cycles of reform and repression
The Young Turks, after 1889, an active body of opposition
Cycles of reform and repression
1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a constitutional government
New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-1909) proved an autocrat: suspended constitution, dissolved parliament, and punished liberals
Continued Tanzimat army and administration reform: became source of the new liberal opposition
The Young Turks, after 1889, an active body of opposition
Founded by exiled Ottomans
Called for universal suffrage, equality, freedom, secularization, women's rights
Forced Abd al-Hamid to restore constitution, dethroned him (1909) and instituted puppet sultan
Nationalistic: favored Turkish dominance within empire, led to Arab resistance
Failed reform
Despite reform efforts, Ottoman empire could not ward off internal or external issues
Survived only bc European powers did not know how to dismantle it without disturbing the European power balance
Russian Military defeat and social reform
The Crimean War (1853-1856)
Emancipation of serfs in 1861 by Alexander II
Political and legal reforms followed
The Crimean War (1853-1856)
Nineteenth-century Russia expanded from Manchuria, across Asia to Baltic Sea
Sought access to Mediterranean Sea, moved on Balkans controlled by Ottomans
European coalition supported Ottomans against Russia in Crimea
Crushing defeat forced tsars to take radical steps to modernize army, industry
Emancipation of serfs in 1861 by Alexander II
Serfdom supported landed nobility, an obstacle to economic development
Tsar Alexander II (1855-1881) in 1861 issued the Emancipation Manifesto
Serfs gained right to land, but no political rights; had to pay a tax on the lands they were granted
Many Serfs held land in mir (society) of other Serfs, so selling of land was not possible
Emancipation did not increase agricultural production or have signifcant social difference for Serfs
Political and legal reforms followed
1864, creation of zemstvos, local assemblies with representatives from all classes
A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power
Legal reform based on western European systems more successful: implemntation of juries, independent judges, professional attorneys, less judicial corruption
Russian Industrilization
The Witte system: developed by Sergei Witte, minister of finance, 1892-1903
Industrial discontent intensified
The Witte system: developed by Sergei Witte, minister of finance, 1892-1903
Centerpiece of Witte’s policy was railway construction which stimulated other industries and connected the empire; trans-Siberian railway opened Siberia to large-scale settlement, exploitation, and industrialization.
To raise domestic capitial, Witte remodeled the state bank, protected infant industries, secured foreign loans to finance industrialization efforts
Witte’s industrialization effective; steel, coal, and oil industries grew
Industrial discontent intensifiedIndustrial discontent intensified
Rapid industrialization fell hardest on working classes, they had to deal with terrible conditions of living and factory work
Workers rebelled and went on strikes
Government outlawed unions, strikes; workers increasingly radical
Business class supported autocracy and government policy that protected domestic industries, content to have no reform
Repression and revolution
Cycles of protest and repression
Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition
Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05: Russian expansion to east leads to conflict with Japan
Revolution of 1905: triggered by costly Russian defeat by Japan
Cycles of protest and repression
Peasants landless, no political power, frustrated by lack of meaningful reform
Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s
Intelligentsia (university students and class of intellectuals) advocated socialism and (some) anarchism, recruited in countryside
Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship
Re- pression, however, only served to radi- calize revolutionaries further and gave them new determination to overthrow the tsarist regime. Some subjects began speaking their own languages and often used schools and political groups as foundations for separatist movements \n
Tsarist Authority responds with Russification: repressed use of lngauges other than Russian, restricted education to those loyal to tsar, sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated (pogroms)
Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition
Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881
Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler
1876: Land ad Freedom party promotes assanitiation of officials to force reforms.
1879: terrorist faction of party, the People’s Will, resolves to kill Alexander the II
Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881, sparking tsarist autocracy era of repression
1894: Nicholas II (1894-1917), weak ruler, supported oppresion and police control. To deflect attention from domestic issues + to nuetralize revol. movements, launched expansion efforts in east Asia.
Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05: Russian expansion to east leads to conflict with Japan
Russia and Japan both interested in expansion into Korea and Manchuria, leading to Russo-Japanese War in 1904 that swiftly ended with Japanese victory in May 1905.
Revolution of 1905: triggered by costly Russian defeat by Japan
Russian military defeat triggered widespread protest. January 1905 peaceful protest in St. Petersburg becomes Bloody Sunday massacre: 130 unarmed workers shot down by government troops.
Bloody Sunday triggered increased revolt: Peasants seized landlords' property; workers formed soviets (councils to organize strikes and negotiate with employers and gov- ernment authorities).
Government forced to make recessions.
Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma, first parlimentary institution in Russia; did not have power to dismantle governments, but still a major concession. Tensions continued, Romanav empire weakened even after order restored.
Chinese opium war and unequal treaties
Opium trade a serious threat to Qing dynasty by nineteenth century
The Opium War (1839-1842)
Unequal treaties forced trade concessions from Qing dynasty
Opium trade a serious threat to Qing dynasty by nineteenth century
Chinese cohong system restricted foreign merchants to one port city
China had much to offer, but little demand for European products (not open to trading)
Europeans could only trade with China in silver, taxing on economy, needed other options
East India Company cultivated opium to exchange for Chinese goods and silver
About forty thousand chests of opium shipped to China yearly by 1838
Opium has social and economic reprcussions in China, drained quantities of silver, and led to lots of addiction
Opium War (1839-1842)
Commissioner Lin Zexu directed to stop opium trade, destroyed shipments of opium
British did not end trade; Lin confiscated and destroyed twenty thousand chests of opium
British outraged and retaliated, easily crushed Chinese forces, destroyed Grand Canal
Throughout 19th c Chinese suffered more military setbacks with Britain, France, and Japan
Unequal treaties forced trade concessions from Qing dynasty
serious of pacts that curtailed Chinese soveirgnty
Forced into Treaty of Nanjing, 1842: Britain gained right to opium trade, most-favored-nation status, Hong Kong, open trade ports, exemptions from Chinese laws
Similar unequal treaties made to other western countries and Japan, opening ports for trade, legalizing opium trade, and opening empire to Christian missionaries
By 1900, China lost control of economy, ninety ports to foreign powers
The Taiping rebellion
Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth century
The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by Hong Xiuquan
Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign troops
Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth century
Population grew by 50 percent; land and food more slowly; poverty strained resources
Other problems: official corruption, drug addiction
Four major rebellions in 1850s and 1860s; the most dangerous was the Taiping
The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by Hong Xiuquan
1850 to 1864
Called for end of Qing dynasty; resented Manchu rule
Wanted radical social change: no private property, footbinding, concubinage, creation of communal wealth to be shared according to needs, simplification of the written language, and literacy for the masses. Decreed the equality of men and women.
Popular in southeast China; seized Nanjing (1853), made it capitial of Taiping Kingdom, moved on Beijing
Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign troops
Gentry sided with government, opposed to radical Taiping; Qing government had regional armies aided by European advisors and weapons
Taipings defeated in 1864; the war claimed twenty to thirty million lives
Reform frustrated
The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)
Spheres of influence eroded Chinese power
The hundred-days reforms (1898)
The Boxer rebellion (the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists), 1899-1900
The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)
“Chinese learning at the base, Western learning for use,” military and economic reform.
Sought to blend Chinese cultural traditions (like confucianism and maintaining agrarian society) with European industrial technology
Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries, steel foundries, academies
Not enough industry to make a significant change, all change was superficial
Powerful empress dowager Cixi opposed changes. She used funds intended for the movement to better imperial life.
Elites worried that indistruliziation would lead to social change that would steer China towards European education and away from Confucian values.
Spheres of influence eroded Chinese power
Foreign powers seized Chinese tribute states of Vietnam, Burma, Korea, Taiwan
1898, foreign powers carved China into spheres of economic influence, each a different province where the Qing government granted the foreigners with exclusive rights for railway and mineral development
Distrsut among foreign powers only thing keeping Qing in tact
The hundred-days reforms (1898)
Spearheaded by Confucianist scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao
published series of treatises that reinterpretd confucianism to justify radical changes in imperial system. Wanted to make China an industrial power
Young emperor Guangxu inspired to transform
China into a constitutional monarchy, guarantee civil liber- ties, root out corruption, remodel the educational system, en- courage foreign influence in China, modernize military forces, and stimulate economic development.
Movement crushed in 103 days by Cixi and elite supporters; emperor imprisoned; reformers killed, Liang and Kang flee to Japan
The Boxer rebellion (the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists), 1899-1900
Local militia attacked foreigners, Chinese Christians
Crushed by European and Japanese troops
Collapse of Qing dynasty in 1912
Anti-foreign uprising supported by Cixi bc she thought foreign powers were conspiring to effect her retirement.
Was a violent movmeent of Local militia who called themselves the Society of Righteous and Harmonious fists. Foreign press called them Boxers.
Went on rampage killing Chinese Christians, foreigners, and Chinese tied to foriegners.
A heavily armed force of British, French, Russian, U.S., German, and Japanese troops quickly crushed the Boxer movement. The Chinese government had to pay a punitive indemnity and allow foreign powers to station troops in Beijing at their embassies and along the route to the sea.
Revolutions broke out. By 1912, Qing dynasty fell.
Japan: Tokugawa to Meiji
Crisis and reform in early nineteenth century
Foreign pressure for Japan to reverse long-standing closed door policy
The end of Tokugawa rule followed these humiliations
The Meiji restoration, 1868
Crisis and reform in early nineteenth century
Crisis: crop failure, high taxes, rising rice prices all led to protests and rebellions
Tokugawa bakufu tried conservative reforms, met with resistance
Foreign pressure for Japan to reverse long-standing closed door policy
1844 requests by British, French, and United States for the right of entry rebuffed
1853, U.S. Commodore Perry sailed U.S. fleet to Tokyo Bay, demanded entry
Japan forced to accept unequal treaties with United States and other western countries
The end of Tokugawa rule followed these humiliations
Widespread opposition to shogun rule, especially in provinces
Dissidents rallied around emperor in Kyoto by 1858
Sudden foreign intrusion led to domestic crisis, resulting in the collapse of the Tokugawa bakufu. Imperial rule restored.
After complying to demands of foreigners, daimyo and the emperor opposed the Shogun’s rule and resented the humiliating unequal treaties.
Unhappy subjects rally around empire
The Meiji restoration, 1868
After brief civil war, Tokugawa armies defeated by dissident militia
The boy emperor Mutsuhito, or Meiji, gained authority, restored empire system
End of almost seven centuries of military rule in Japan
Meiji reforms
Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise
Abolition of the feudal order essential to new government
Revamping tax system
Constitutional government, the emperor's "gift" to the people in 1889
Remodeling the economy and infrastructure
Costs of economic development borne by Japanese people
Japan became an industrial power in a single generation
Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise
Fukuzawa Yukichi studied western constitutions and education, went to Europe and US and liked their constitutional government, argued strongly for equality before the law (cerca 1860)
Ito Hirobumi helped build Japanese constitutional government, traveled abroad in 1882 and 1883 to Europe and studied constitutions and administrative systems. Especially impressed with Germany. Used them as influence for draft of Japanese constitution.
Abolition of the feudal order essential to new government
wanted to centralize political power, needed to abolish old social order
Daimyo and samurai lost status and privileges
Districts reorganized to break up old feudal domains
New conscript army ended military power of samurai; rebelled but quelled by 1878
Revamping tax system
Converted grain taxes to a fixed money tax: more reliable income for state
Assessed taxes on potential productivity of arable land
Constitutional government, the emperor's "gift" to the people in 1889
1889 consitiution was gift to people
Drafted under Ito Hirobumi
made Japan a constituitional monarchy with a legislature, the Diet.
Emperor remained supreme, limited the rights of the people, had right to dissolve parliment. the constitution also limited the power of the Diet, and recognized individual rights but could limit them in the interest of the state.
Less than 5 percent of adult males could vote
Legislature, the Diet, was an opportunity for debate and dissent
Remodeling the economy and infrastructure
Created modern infastructures
Transportation: railroads, telegraph, steamships. Tied local and regioal networks into a national level.
Commerce and trade easier, abolished guild restricitions and internal tariffs
Education: universal primary and secondary; competitive universities, often focused in scientific and technicl fields to support industrialization and economic growth
Industry: privately owned, government controlled arms industry
Zaibatsu: powerful financial cliques formed from government selling interprises to private investors to stimulate economic growth
Costs of economic development borne by Japanese people
Land tax cost peasants 40 percent to 50 percent of crop yield, provided 90 percent of state revenue
Peasant uprisings crushed; little done to alleviate suffering
Labor movement also crushed; Meiji law treated unions and strikes as criminal
Industrialization and economic development were costly for peasants and working class
Japan became an industrial power in a single generation
Ended unequal treaties in 1899
Defeated China in 1895 and Russia in 1904-1905
Motives for imperialism
Modern imperialism
Two types of modern colonialism
Economic motives of imperialism
Political motives
Cultural justifications of imperialism
modern imperialism
Refers to domination of industrialized countries over subject lands
Domination achieved through trade, investment, and business activities
Two types of modern colonialism
Colonies ruled and populated by migrants
Colonies controlled by imperial powers without significant settlement
Economic motives of imperialism
European merchants and entrepreneurs made personal fortunes
Overseas expansion for raw materials: rubber, tin, copper, petroleum
Colonies were potential markets for industrial products
Political motives
Strategic purpose: harbors and supply stations for industrial nations
Overseas expansion used to defuse internal tensions
Cultural justifications of imperialism
Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia
"Civilizing mission" or "white man's burden" was a justification for expansion
Tools of empire
Transportation technologies supported imperialism
Western military technologies increasingly powerful
Communication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies
Transportation technologies supported imperialism
Steam-powered gunboats reached inland waters of Africa and Asia
Railroads organized local economies to serve imperial power
Western military technologies increasingly powerful
Firearms: from muskets to rifles to machines guns
In Battle of Omdurman 1898, British troops killed eleven thousand Sudanese in five hours
Communication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies
Oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain to India from years to weeks
Telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900
British Empire in India
Company rule under the English East India Company
British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858
Economic restructuring of India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
British rule did not interfere with Indian culture or Hindu religion
Company rule under the English East India Company
EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began conquest of India in 1750s
Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay
Ruled domains with small British force and Indian troops called sepoys
Sepoy mutiny, 1857: attacks on British civilians led to swift British reprisals
British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858
British viceroy and high-level British civil service ruled India
British officials appointed a viceroy and formulated all domestic and foreign policy
Indians held low-level bureaucratic positions
Economic restructuring of India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
Introduction of commercial crops: tea in Ceylon, also coffee and opium
Built railroads and telegraph lines, new canals, harbors, and irrigation methods
British rule did not interfere with Indian culture or Hindu religion
Established English-style schools for Indian elites
Outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, such as the sati
Did not push Christianity
Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia
"The Great Game" refers to competition between Britain and Russia in central Asia
Dutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East India)
British colonies in southeast Asia
French Indochina created, 1859-1893
Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) left in place as buffer between Burma and Indochina
"The Great Game" refers to competition between Britain and Russia in central Asia
By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British India
Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never colonized Afghanistan
Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991
Russia could not go into India bc of WWI and the fall of the tsarist regime
Dutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East India)
As imperial tensions rose, Dutch tightened control of Indonesia which was valuable bc of its cash crops and rubber and tin.
British colonies in southeast Asia
Established colonial authority in Burma, 1880s, source of teak, ivory, rubies, and jade
Port of Singapore founded 1824; was base for conquest of Malaya, 1870s, provided abundant supplies of tin and rubber, provided ports to control waterways around Indian Ocean and South China Sea
French Indochina created, 1859-1893
Consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos
French encouraged conversion to Christianity, and established western-style schools to foster connction with native elites
Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) left in place as buffer between Burma (Brit) and Indochina (french)
The scramble for Africa
Between 1875 and 1900, European powers seized almost the entire continent
South Africa settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth century
The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885
Colonial rule challenging and expensive
Between 1875 and 1900, European powers seized almost the entire continent
Early explorers charted the waters, gathered information on resources
Missionaries like David Livingstone set up mission posts
Henry Stanley sent by Leopold II of Belgium to create colony in Congo, 1870s
To protect their investments and Suez Canal, Britain occupied Egypt, 1882
South Africa settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth century
1652 Dutch EIC used it as supply stattiojn on Cape Town
By 1800 was a European (Afrikaner) settler colony with enslaved black African population
British seized, disrupting Afrikaner settlers with English law and langauge, Cape Colony in early nineteenth century, abolished slavery in 1833
British-Dutch tensions led to Great Trek of Afrikaners inland to claim new lands
Mid-nineteenth century, Afrikaners established Orange Free State in 1854, Transvaal in 1860
Discovery of gold and diamonds in Afrikaner lands; influx of British settlers and more serious British interest in establishment of states in South Africa
Tensions between British and Afrikaners
Boer War/South African War broke out, 1899-1902, forught for land and resources of Orange Free State and Transvaal: British defeated Afrikaners, Union of South Africa in 1910
The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885
1882 Brits occupied Egypt to protect the economic intersts of the Suez Canal (fastest sea route to India). Justified this by saying they were stabilizing Egypt.
Egyptians grew hostile and other European powers worried that British control of the Suez canal would drastically shift global power dyanmics.
Tensions led to Berlin Conference
European powers + Ottoman + US set rules for carving Africa into colonies
Occupation, supported by European armies, established colonial rule in Africa
By 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled by European powers
Colonial rule challenging and expensive
"Concessionary companies": European governments granted considerable authority to private companies (Example: German Colonial Society for German Southwest Africa) \n (a) empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads \n (b) implemented forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian Congo \n (c) unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule
Direct rule: replacing strong local rulers with maleable peoples--French model-- had administrative districts with European personnel who controlled tax collection, labor and military recruitment, and the maintenance of law and order.
a) kept natives in check and allowed for European administrators to engage in "civilizing mission" \n (b) hard to find enough European personnel (eg French West Africa
Indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--British model -- British colonial administrator Frederick D. Lugard was driving force behind idea -- reliant on using exisiting “tribal” authority and “customary laws”
(a) worked best in African societies that were highly organized \n (b) assumed/imposed their own ideas about what tribal rule and boundaries etc. were like firm tribal boundaries where often none existed
European imperialism in the Pacific
Settler colonies in the Pacific
mperialists in paradise: delayed colonization of Pacific Islands until late nineteenth century
Settler colonies in the Pacific
1770, Captain James Cook reached Australia, reported it suitable for settlement
1788, one thousand settlers established colony of New South Wales (mostly convicts)
1851, gold discovered; surge of European migration to Australia
Fertile soil and timber of New Zealand attracted European settlers
Europeans diseases dramatically reduced aboriginal populations
Large settler societies forced indigenous peoples onto marginal lands (British settlers in Australia saw the land as belonging to no one. In New Zealand in 1840 British convinced native leaders to sign the treaty of waitangi which led to British colonial control)
Imperialists in paradise: delayed colonization of Pacific Islands until late nineteenth century
Early visitors to the Pacific were mostly whalers, merchants, some missionaries
Late nineteenth century, European states sought coaling stations and naval ports
By 1900, all islands but Tonga claimed by France, Britain, Germany and United States.
Island plantations produced sugarcane, copra, guano
U.S. imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific
The Monroe Doctrine, 1823: proclamation by U.S. president James Monroe
The Spanish-American War (1898-99)
The Panama Canal, 1903-1914
The Monroe Doctrine, 1823: proclamation by U.S. president James Monroe
Opposed European imperialism in the Americas; justified U.S. intervention
United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867
Hawaii became a protectorate in 1875, formally annexed in 1898
The Spanish-American War (1898-99)
United States defeated Spain and took over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines
United States backed Filipino revolt against Spain which coincided with the war, purchased and took over the colony (important colony for business and miliatary bc of strategic position in South China Sea)
1902-1904, bitter civil war killed two hundred thousand Filipinos, ended in U.S. victory
The Panama Canal, 1903-1914
US wanted easy passge way between atlantic and pacific
Colombian government refused U.S. request to build canal at Panama isthmus
United States helped rebels in 1903 establish the state of Panama for the right to build a canal and the zone the canal is in
Then President Roosevelt added Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine saying that the US could intervene in domestic affairs of countries in Latin/South America if the countries could not adequately protect US investmnets.
Completed in 1914; gave United States access to Atlantic and Pacific
Imperial Japan
apanese resented unequal treaties of 1860s, resolved to become imperial power
Meiji government bought British warships, built up navy, established military academies
The Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
Early Japanese expansion in nearby islands
1870s, to the north: Hokkaido, Kurile islands
By 1879, to the south: Okinawa and Ryukyu Islands
Meiji government bought British warships, built up navy, established military academies
1876, imposed unequal treaties on Korea at gunpoint
Made plans to invade China
The Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
Rebellion in Korea: Chinese army sent to restore order, reassert authority
Meiji leaders declared war against China, demolished Chinese fleet
China forced to cede Korea, Taiwan, Pescadores Islands, Liaodong peninsula
The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
Russia also had territorial ambitions in Liaodong peninsula, Korea, Manchuria
Japanese navy destroyed local Russian forces; Baltic fleet sent as reinforcements
Japan now a major imperial power
Empire and economy: two patterns of changes
Colonial rule transformed traditional production of crops and commodities
New crops transformed landscape and society
Colonial rule transformed traditional production of crops and commodities
Indian cotton grown to serve British textile industry
Inexpensive imported textiles undermined Indian production
New crops transformed landscape and society
Rain forests of Ceylon converted to tea plantations
Ceylonese women recruited to harvest tea
Rubber plantations transformed Malaya and Sumatra
Labor migrations
European migration
Indentured labor migration more typical from Asia, Africa, and Pacific islands
Large-scale migrations reflected global influence of imperialism
European migration
Fifty million Europeans migrated 1800-1914, over half to the United States
Other settler colonies in Canada, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
Most European migrants became cultivators, herders, or skilled laborers
Indentured labor migration more typical from Asia, Africa, and Pacific islands
About 2.5 million indentured laborers globally during 1820-1914
Indentured migrants tended to work on tropical and subtropical plantations
Example: Indian laborers to Pacific island and Caribbean plantations
Japanese laborers to Hawaiian sugar plantations
Empire and society
Colonial conflict not uncommon in nineteenth century
"Scientific racism" popular in nineteenth century
Colonial experience only reinforced popular racism