AP PSYCH UNIT 5

memory

memory

learning that has continued over time

explicit memory

aka declarative memory; memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare, processed in the hippocampus and frontal lobe and stored in other parts of the brain

implicit memory

aka non-declarative memory; retention independent of conscious recollection, but is stored unconsciously; these memories are stored in the cerebellum and basal ganglia

semantic memory

memory that allows for cognitive processes and contains general knowledge and information

self-serving bias

a type of cognitive bias that involves taking personal credit for successes while blaming negative outcomes on external factors

episodic memory

memory of your personal past experiences

procedural memory

memory of certain automatic skills which we do not need to recall consciously

repression

the exclusion of distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings from the conscious mind

flashbulb memory

emotionally intense events that become “burned in” as a vivid memory

Hermann Ebbinghaus

German psychologist who studied memory and retention; discovered forgetting curve and spacing effect; studied rehearsal

parallel processing

when two or more separate operations are happening at the same time and functioning independently of one another

shallow processing

simple memorization of information without attention to detail or attaching meaning to it

deep processing

processing that involves elaborative rehearsal along with meaningful analysis of the ideas and words being learned

information-processing model

consists for three steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval

sensory memory

a mental representation of how environmental events look, sound, feel, smell and taste

iconic memory

temporary retention of a visual stimulus after the stimulus is no longer present

echoic memory

temporary retention of a auditory stimulus after the stimulus is no longer present

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number)

George Miller

psychologist that proposed that 7 plus or minus 2 is the amount of meaningful information one can hold in their short term memory

working memory

a newer understanding of short term memory; focuses on conscious, active processing of auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

long term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

visual encoding

when visual stimuli are converted into mental representations that are then processed and stored

acoustic encoding

when auditory stimuli are converted into mental representations that are then processed and stored

tactile encoding

when touch stimuli are converted into mental representations that are then processed and stored

organization encoding

processing information in sequences or categories

elaborative encoding

processing information by connecting it to other previously learned information

semantic encoding

processing information by focusing on the meaning of the information

storage decay

poor durability of stored memories leading to decay

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

recognition

correct identification of previously learned material

recall

direct retrieval of information

priming

triggers a thread of associations that bring us to a concept

context-dependent memory

the phenomenon in which recall is stronger when a subject is present in the same environment in which the original memory was formed

mood-congruent memory

 information that can be retrieved while in a mood similar to when it was acquired

state-dependent memory

the phenomenon where people remember more information if their physical or mental state is the same at time of encoding and time of recall

retrieval failure

although the information is retained in the memory store it cannot be accessed; aka the tip of the tongue effect

serial position effect

 the tendency, when learning information in a long list, to most likely recall the first items (primacy effect) and the last items (recency effect)

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

anterograde amnesia

when a person is unable to learn new information

retrograde amnesia

when a person in unable to remember previously learned information

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source and event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event; studied by Elizabeth Loftus

Elizabeth Loftus

studied eyewitness testimony and memory reconstruction, as well as the misinformation effect

spacing effect

the tendency for people to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

mnemonics

memory aids, use vivid imagery and organizational devices

chunking

combining grouping bits of related information

method of loci

a strategy of memory enhancement which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information

peg word system

a mnemonic device that is used to memorize lists that need to be in order

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

self-reference effect

a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level on which they are implicated in the information

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation, strengthening over time and leading to memory formation

hippocampus

part of the limbic system; associated with emotions and transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term memory

basal ganglia

a group of subcortical nuclei in the brain that plays an important role in memory retrieval and procedural memory - creating and maintaining habits, helps with classical conditioning

cerebellum

part of the brain responsible for implicit and procedural memories along with the basal ganglia

amygdala

primary processor of emotional reactions in the brain, creates flashbulb memories

concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

mental image or best example of a category

algorithm

methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem because it explores every possibility

heuristic

simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problem efficiently

insight

sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

Wolfgang Kohler

created the idea of insight learning

syllogism

using logic and deductive reasoning to solve problems

creativity

ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

representative heuristic

when we judge something based on prototypes we have in that category, overgeneralizing

availability heuristic

when we judge the occurrence of something based on how easily available or memorable the information about it is

hindsight bias

the tendency to think that one could have anticipated the outcome of an event or experiment after it has already occurred

confirmation bias

a tendency to only search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions

mental set

the tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

framing

the way an issue is presented, which can significantly affect decisions and judgments

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

overconfidence

to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

functional fixedness

tendency to view problems only in their customary manner, prevents people from seeing all possible options that might be available

intelligence

our ability to learn from experience, recognise problems, and use knowledge in order to adapt to new situations and solve problems

Spearman’s general intelligence

theory that a basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas

Gardner’s multiple intelligences

a theory that classifies intelligence into eight categories, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional smarts

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

the theory that classifies intelligence into three areas: analytical, creative, and practical

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

halo effect

a cognitive bias where our overall impression of someone influences how we feel and think about his or her character

Savant syndrome

condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an amazing specific skill

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

take someone’s mental age divided by their chronological age multiplied by 100

mental age

age-level at which you function mentally

Sir Francis Galton

psychologist interested in individual differences; from his work emerged the concept of measuring intelligence

Alfred Binet

invented first practical IQ test, the Stanford-Binet test

Lewis Terman

revised Binet’s IQ test; tested group of young geniuses to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to a good life

David Wechsler

developed Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance subtests

performance scale

one’s measured processing speed in an intelligence test

abstract tasks

tasks involving matching visual patterns

verbal scale

one’s verbal comprehension

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

split-half reliability

checking for consistency between the scores on two halves of the same test

test-retest reliability

when repeated administration of the same test yields consistent results

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that it intends to

construct validity

how well a test measures a concept