AP Psychology - Learning and Intelligence

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Learning

A long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience. (Usually becomes habitual in 66 days)

Neuroplasticity (Brain plasticity)

The ability of the brain to change throughout an individual’s life

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity. (produce a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons)

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together. (Could be classical or operant conditioning)

Classical Conditioning

Learning to associate two stimuli and anticipate events

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Delayed Conditioning (Simultaneous Conditioning)

Controled stimulus (CS) begins first and overlaps with the unconditioned stimulus (US) before both end. Creates a strong, predictable association

Trace Conditioning (Backward Conditioning)

Controlled stimulus (CS) begins and ends before the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning or conditioning. (Process where a new behavior is introduced and gradually strengthened)

Extinction

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned behavior or response when the reinforcement or unconditioned stimulus is removed

Spontaneous Recovery

The sudden, temporary re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response/behavior after a rest period of delay, w/o further conditioning

Generalization

The tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli; apply learned behaviors to new, similar contexts

Discrimination

The unjust or prejudicial behavioral treatment of individuals based on their integration in a particular group (often stemming from stereotypes and prejudices)

Aversive Conditioning

Type of classical conditioning; pair a negative stimulus with an unwanted behavior to reduce the habit

First-Order Conditioning

Regular process of pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned response (bell with salivating)

Second-Order Conditioning

Pairing another neutral stimulus with the previously conditioned stimulus to eventually make it a conditioned stimulus

Garcia Effect

If you ingest an unusual food or drink, and then you become nauseous, you will most likely develop an aversion to that food

Operant Conditioning

A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment

Reinforcement

Anything that maintains or increases the likelihood of a behavior

Positive Reinforcement

Addition of something pleasant to increase behavior (food, shelter, water)

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior (loud noise, darkness, pain)

Punishment

Anything that makes a behavior less likely to reoccur

Positive Punishment

Adding something bad to discourage behavior (A shock)

Negative Punishment

Removing something to discourage behavior (taking away electronics)

Escape Conditioning (Escape Learning)

A form of conditioning in which the subject learns to perform a behavior that terminates an aversive stimulus, pain, or punishment by escaping from the unpleasant stimulus. (Acting up in class to avoid an test)

Avoidance Conditioning

A form of conditioning that enables one to avoid the unpleasant stimulus altogether (calling parent and telling them you’re sick to avoid the dentist)

Shaping

Reinforcing the steps used to reach a single desired behavior; to mold a single behavior

Chaining

Reinforcing individual responses occuring in a sequence to form a complex behavior; to link together several separate behaviors into a more complex activity

Primary Reinforcers

An innate, unlearned stimulus that satisfies a basic biological need or drives survival (Food, physical comfort)

Secondary Reinforcers

A stimulus that gains reinforcing power by being paired with a primary reinforcer through learning (saying thank you, praise)

Premack Principle

Whichever of the two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce the activity that is not preferred (eating veggies → dessert)

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement is delivered after a behavior is performed following the passage of a fixed amount of time

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses (think slot machines)

Variable Interval

Reinforcement is delivered after a behavior is performed following the passage of a variable amount of time

Token Economy

(Operant Conditioning) People are given a token for some behavior and can exchange the tokens for various privledges

Cognitive Learning

Learning by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Observational Learning

People and animals learning through observing others

Abstract Learning

Understanding concepts at an intellectual level rather than just through concrete experience or direct instructions

Standardized Tests

Test items have been tested on a similar population of people, and achievement norms have been established (SAT)

Split-Half Reliability

test for a single knowledge area is split into two parts and then both parts given to one group of students at the same time. The scores from both parts of the test undergo a statistical analysis, and a correlation may be uncovered.

Test-Retest Reliability

The correlation between a person’s score on one administration of the test and their score on a subsequent administration of the test

Face Validility

The criteria on which you measure the accuracy of something may not be the most reliable measure. (Ex. in choosing a doctor, you base your decision on how well a doctor can treat your symptoms by what the doctor is wearing.)

Content Validility

How well a measure reflects the entire range of material it is supposed to be testing. (Ex. looking for a doctor to treat your symptoms, looking at education and speciality)

Aptitude Tests

Predicts future performance

Achivement Tests

Assesses current performance

Intelligence

 The ability to gather and use information in productive ways

Fluid Intelligence

Our ability to solve abstract problems and pick up new information/skills

Crystalized Intelligence

Involves using knowledge accumulated over time

General Intelligence (G Factor)

If you’re good at one thing, you can transfer that energy and ability to another thing

Factor Analysis

A statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of factors

Mental Age

What a person of a particular age should know

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Cultural Bias

An aspect of an intelligence test in which the wording used in questions may be more familiar to people in one social group than another.

Nature

Behavior is determined by our inherited, genetic structure. Behavior can be said to be innate (in born)

Nurture

Behavior is the result of learning and experience resulting from outside factors from parents, media, peers, etc. Behavior is learned

Flynn Effect

Describes the significant, long-term rise in average IQ test scores observed globally throughout the 20th century