AP PSYCH EXAM REVIEW (UNITS 1-4)

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind (promoted by Wundt)

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes our tendency to to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish (promoted by William James)

Behavioral Approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants.

humanistic approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing human need for self-fulfillment, a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny.

Cognitive Approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.

Biological Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

Social-Cultural Approach

An approach to psychology focusing on how situations and cultures affect behavior and thinking.

Evolutionary Approach

An approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.

Psychoanalytic Approach

An approach to psychology created by Sigmund Freud and emphasized the impact of unconscious forces on behaviors and thoughts. This theory also proposed that individuals are primarily driven by sexual and aggressive tendencies.

Biopsychosocial Approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

experimental method

A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor.

Independent variable

The variable that you give

Dependent variable

The variable that you "get"

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is subject to the IV

Control group

In an experiment, the group that is not subject to the IV

Random Assignment

Randomly picking and placing people to be in control or experimental group. Prevents bias or uneven groups.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo

a fake drug used in the testing of medication

Placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

correlational study

a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other

positive correlation

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

survey

having people answer a series of questions

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Case study

an in-depth study of a single person or group to reveal some universal principle

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

participant bias

a tendency for research participants to respond in a certain way because they know they are being observed, or they believe they know what the researcher wants

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

mode

the number that appears most frequently

mean

average

median

Middle number

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

5 Major Ethical Guidelines

1. Approved by Institutional Review Board
2. Informed Consent
3. Confidentiality/Anonymity
4. No physical/emotional harm (must be kept to minimum)
5. Debriefing

American Psychological Association (APA)

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

Insitutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

dendrites of neuron

receives signals from other cells

soma

cell body of a neuron

axon

A threadlike extension of a neuron that transfers signals to other cells and organs

myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and increases the speed of the signal

axon terminal

The endpoint of a neuron where junctions with other cells are formed

terminal buttons (axon terminals)

ends of axons that secrete neurotransmitters

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Threshold

amount needed in order for neuron to fire

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

resting potential

the charge being built up in order for neuron to fire

all-or-none principle

Refers to the fact that the action potential in the axon occurs either full-blown or not at all.

synaptic gap

space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the receptors of the next neuron where neurotransmitters are released

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the environment from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

motor neurons

neurons in the brain and spinal cord that allow us to move, speak, swallow and breathe by sending commands from the brain to the muscles that carry out these functions

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that control different thigs in the brain

receptors

end of dendrites that receive neurotransmitters

excitatory effect

a neurotransmitter effect that makes it more likely that the receiving neuron will generate an action potential or "fire"

inhibitory effect

a neurotransmitter effect that makes it less likely that a receiving neuron will generate an action potential or "fire"

Antagonist

drugs that bind to synaptic receptors and decrease the effect of the neurotransmitter

agonists

drugs that that bind to synaptic receptors and increase the effect of the neurotransmitter

Acetylcholine (ACh)

The Learning neurotransmitter; Enables muscle action, learning and memory (decreased ACh production - Alzheimer's)

Dopamine

The pleasure neurotransmitter; influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion (under supply - depression, oversupply - schizophrenia)

Serotonin

The mood neurotransmitter; Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal (undersupply - depression)

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal (undersupply - depressed mood)

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter (undersupply - seizures, tremors, and insomnia)

Glutamate

The memory neurotransmitter; excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory (oversupply - can overstimulate brain causing migraines or seizures)

Adrenaline

The fight or flight neurotransmitter; hormone produced in high stress or exciting situations; leads to physical boost and heightened awareness

Endorphins (20+ Types in Human Body)

The Euphoria neurotransmitters; Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure (oversupply with opiate drugs can suppress body's natural endorphin supply)

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the body's processing center; consists of the brain and spinal cord

spinal cord

sends info. from body to brain and brain to body

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

somatic nervous system

controls voluntary muscle movements; sensory neurons send messages to CNS and motor neurons send message back out from CNS

brainstem

Where spinal cord enters the skull; regulates most the bodies automatic functions

Cerebellum

coordinates voluntary movement (walking, balance); helps with nonverbal learning and memory

Medulla

controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem; filters and relays sensory info. to other parts of brain; helps control arousal (waking up)

pons

the part of the brainstem that links brain to spinal cord; in control of sleep/e\wake cycle and breathing; merging point between brain and face (controlling of facial muscles

Limbic system

the emotional brain; neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres (consists of amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus)

Thalamus

joined par of egg shapes; brains sensory switchboard; receives info. from all senses except smell and routes to higher brain regions

Hypothalamus (Limbic System)

located in brain and controls your endocrine system; Determines when to tell glands to produce hormones; controls mood, hunger/thirst, sleep patterns, sexual functions

Hippocampus (limbic system)

conscious memories; consolidation of memories

Amygdala (Limbic System)

neural center that influence (perception of) fear, anger, aggression; processing of emotions, memories

cerebral cortex

the thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain research

-study of patients with severed corpus callosum
-involves sending messages to only one side of the brain
-demonstrates right and left brain specialization

frontal lobe

behind forehead; Speaking, making judgements/plans