Psychology 201- Exam 3

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS (e.g., salivation when food is presented).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a conditioned response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is established (e.g., the dog learns to associate the bell with food).

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is presented without the UCS (e.g., the bell rings but no food is presented).

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause (e.g., after some time, the dog salivates again at the bell).

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS (e.g., the dog salivates to a different bell sound).

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli (e.g., the dog salivates only to the specific bell used during training).

Higher-Order Conditioning

Involves using a conditioned stimulus to condition a new stimulus (e.g., a light is paired with the bell causing the dog to salivate).

Conditioned Taste Aversion

A learned aversion to a particular taste associated with illness (e.g., nausea after eating a specific food).

Law of Effect

Proposed by Thorndike, it states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur again.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., giving a child a cookie for good behavior).

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., turning off a loud alarm when a task is completed).

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., scolding a child for misbehavior).

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy for not sharing).

Primary Reinforcer

A stimulus that is naturally rewarding (e.g., food, water).

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., getting paid for every 10 products made).

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling).

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement after a set time period (e.g., weekly paychecks).

Variable Interval

Reinforcement after varying time periods (e.g., checking for emails).

Shaping

Gradually training a behavior by reinforcing closer approximations to the desired behavior (e.g., teaching a dog to roll over).

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others; Bandura’s experiments with Bobo dolls showed children imitate aggressive behavior.

Zygote

The fertilized egg at the very beginning of development.

Embryo

The developing organism from about 2 weeks to 8 weeks after fertilization.

Fetus

The developing organism from 9 weeks until birth.

Teratogens

Substances that can cause developmental abnormalities (e.g., alcohol, drugs, certain infections).

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage

Stage from birth to 2 years where learning occurs through sensory experiences and manipulating objects; key concept: object permanence.

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

Stage from 2 to 7 years characterized by developing language and imagination but lacking logical reasoning; key concepts: egocentrism, conservation.

Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage

Stage from 7 to 11 years characterized by developing logical thought about concrete objects; key concepts: conservation, reversibility.

Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage

Stage from 12 years and up characterized by abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

Kohlberg’s Pre-conventional Level

Moral development stage focusing on self-interest and avoiding punishment.

Kohlberg’s Conventional Level

Moral development stage focused on upholding social rules and laws.

Kohlberg’s Post-conventional Level

Moral development stage recognizing universal ethical principles.

Secure attachment

Emotional bond characterized by comfort with intimacy and autonomy.

Authoritative Parenting Style

Parenting style characterized by high warmth and high demand, leading to well-adjusted children.

Erikson’s Trust vs. Mistrust Stage

First stage of psychosocial development where infants learn to trust when caregivers provide reliability.

Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion Stage

Adolescence stage where individuals explore personal identity.