Psychology 201- Exam 3

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Learning

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A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

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A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food).

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39 Terms

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Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food).

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Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS (e.g., salivation when food is presented).

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a conditioned response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).

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Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

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Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is established (e.g., the dog learns to associate the bell with food).

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Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is presented without the UCS (e.g., the bell rings but no food is presented).

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Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause (e.g., after some time, the dog salivates again at the bell).

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Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS (e.g., the dog salivates to a different bell sound).

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Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli (e.g., the dog salivates only to the specific bell used during training).

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Higher-Order Conditioning

Involves using a conditioned stimulus to condition a new stimulus (e.g., a light is paired with the bell causing the dog to salivate).

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Conditioned Taste Aversion

A learned aversion to a particular taste associated with illness (e.g., nausea after eating a specific food).

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Law of Effect

Proposed by Thorndike, it states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur again.

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Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., giving a child a cookie for good behavior).

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Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., turning off a loud alarm when a task is completed).

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Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., scolding a child for misbehavior).

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Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy for not sharing).

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Primary Reinforcer

A stimulus that is naturally rewarding (e.g., food, water).

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Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., getting paid for every 10 products made).

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Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling).

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Fixed Interval

Reinforcement after a set time period (e.g., weekly paychecks).

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Variable Interval

Reinforcement after varying time periods (e.g., checking for emails).

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Shaping

Gradually training a behavior by reinforcing closer approximations to the desired behavior (e.g., teaching a dog to roll over).

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Observational Learning

Learning by observing others; Bandura’s experiments with Bobo dolls showed children imitate aggressive behavior.

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Zygote

The fertilized egg at the very beginning of development.

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Embryo

The developing organism from about 2 weeks to 8 weeks after fertilization.

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Fetus

The developing organism from 9 weeks until birth.

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Teratogens

Substances that can cause developmental abnormalities (e.g., alcohol, drugs, certain infections).

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Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage

Stage from birth to 2 years where learning occurs through sensory experiences and manipulating objects; key concept: object permanence.

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Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

Stage from 2 to 7 years characterized by developing language and imagination but lacking logical reasoning; key concepts: egocentrism, conservation.

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Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage

Stage from 7 to 11 years characterized by developing logical thought about concrete objects; key concepts: conservation, reversibility.

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Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage

Stage from 12 years and up characterized by abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

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Kohlberg’s Pre-conventional Level

Moral development stage focusing on self-interest and avoiding punishment.

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Kohlberg’s Conventional Level

Moral development stage focused on upholding social rules and laws.

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Kohlberg’s Post-conventional Level

Moral development stage recognizing universal ethical principles.

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Secure attachment

Emotional bond characterized by comfort with intimacy and autonomy.

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Authoritative Parenting Style

Parenting style characterized by high warmth and high demand, leading to well-adjusted children.

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Erikson’s Trust vs. Mistrust Stage

First stage of psychosocial development where infants learn to trust when caregivers provide reliability.

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Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion Stage

Adolescence stage where individuals explore personal identity.