Studied by 0 peopleNatural Philosophy
an early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; encompassed what we call science today
Aristotelian View
stated that the Earth was fixed at the center of the universe, with the Sun, planets, and stars revolving around it
established universities, Renaissance patronage and thought, world exploration, the printing press
Causes of the Scientific Revolution:
Nicolaus Copernicus
Polish cleric of the 15th/16th century who kickstarted the Scientific Revolution; opposed the geocentric view
Copernican Hypothesis
the idea that the sun, not the Earth, is the center of the universe
Tycho Brahe
16th century astronomer who made meticulous naked-eye observations of the planets and the stars
“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”
Copernicus’s work published in 1453, the year of his death
Johannes Kepler
used Brahe’s astronomical data to develop his laws of planetary motion and support Copernicus’s theory
Galileo Galilei
Italian astronomer who observed the detail of the Moon and Sun, proposed new theories of motion, and went against pre-existing geocentric belief
Catholic Church
The _____ opposed Galileo’s theories:
Law of Inertia
a law hypothesized by Galileo that states that motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object, and that an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force
Isaac Newton
English scientist who united experimental and theoretical mathematical sides of modern science to explain the forces of movement
Law of Universal Gravitation
Newton’s law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects’ quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
Francis Bacon
argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research
Inductive Reasoning
a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general
Rene Descartes
argued about the state of the universe
Cartesian Dualism
Descartes’s view that all of reality could be ultimately be reduced to mind and matter
Deductive Reasoning
a logical approach where you progress from general ideas to specific conclusions
Andreas Vesalius
Flemish physician studied anatomy by dissecting human bodies (prisoners)
William Harvey
discovered the circulation of blood through the veins and arteries and was the first to explain that the worked like a pump
Robert Boyle
undertook experiment to understand physics and chemistry, finding that the pressure of a gas varies inversely with volume
Rationalism
a secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith and everything was to be submitted to reason
Sensationalism
the idea that all human ideas and thoughts are produced as a result of sensory impressions
Enlightenment
the influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries that introduced a new worldview based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress
Philosophes
a group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow humans in the Age of Enlightenment
John Locke
theorized that all ideas are derived from experience and advocated the education of children and the protection of natural rights
Thomas Hobbes
believed in the hateful nature of humanity and advocated the need for an absolute leader
Montesquieu
proposed ideas of checks and balances and a limited government, favoring constitutionalism over absolutism
Voltaire
advocated for the freedom of speech/press, religious tolerance, and opposed religious fanaticism
Rosseau
believed in the social contract, only one to believe in a democracy, and argued for separate spheres for women and men
Mary Wollstonecraft
argued for educational equality for women
Denis Diderot
created the Encyclopedia, a compilation of all current knowledge
Adam Smith
published the “Wealth of Nations”, advocated for a capitalist, laissez-faire economy
Salon
regular social gathering held by talented and rich Parisians in their homes, where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy
Rococo
popular style in Europe in the eighteenth century, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids
Coffeehouse
a hub of philosophical and critical debate, especially in England (similar to salons)
wealthy
The Enlightenment was led by _____ men and women:
the ordinary, poor population
Enlightenment thought was not directed at:
Deism
belief in the existence of a God on the evidence of reason and nature only, with rejection of supernatural revelation - “Watchmaker”
Public Sphere
an idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics
Enlightened Absolutism
term coined by historians to describe the rule of 18th century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance
Frederick the Great (II)
Prussian enlightened ruler who pushed for abolishment of torture, free press, public education, and religious tolerance
Cameralism
view that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, the state should use its resources and authority to increase the public good
“The king is the first servant of the state”
Frederick the Great believed:
War of Austrian Succession
central European conflict from 1740-1748 fought over Silesia between Austria and Prussia
Seven Years’ War (Central Europe)
fought from 1756-1763 as Austria sought to regain Silesia; this war brought international powers like France and Britain to get involved in the conflict
Prussia
_____ becomes the Eastern European power during this time:
Catherine the Great
Russian ruler who continued policies of Westernization, as well as codifying laws, restricting torture, progressing education, and increased religious toleration
Voltaire and Diderot
Catherine the Great brought in Western European thinkers like:
Pugachev’s Rebellion
serf uprising in 1773 in Russia led by Emelian Pugachev
Pugachev’s rebellion
Initially, Catherine the Great lessened serfdom, but after _____, she intensified it:
Pale of Settlement
Catherine the Great expelled Jews from Russia, forcing them into Poland
Partitions of Poland
conquest of Poland by Prussia, Austria, and Russia due to their stronger military
Maria Theresa
Austrian enlightened ruler
expand the power of the Habsburg dynasty through marriag
Maria Theresa had many children to:
Joseph II
son of Maria Theresa, very radical with Enlightened th
Haskalah
the Jewish Enlightenment of the second half of the eighteenth century, led by the Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn
Toleration of Jews during the Enlighten
Open Field System
agricultural system present from the Middle Ages to the 1700s, where agricultural fields were open, unobstructed, and communal, where fields were farmed on a 3 year rotation to prevent soil exhaustion
Eliminated fallow
Farmers in the 18th century _____ to increase productivity by deliberately rotating certain crops restoring nutrients to the soil
Enclosure
the movement to fence in fields in order to farm more effectively, at the expense of poor peasants, who relied on common fields for farming and pasture
80
At least _____ percent of Europeans worked in agriculture:
Columbian exchange
New crops from the _____ increased food quantity, quality, and diversity
(2nd) Agricultural Revolution
18th century period of the mechanization of agricultural production, advances in transportation, development of large-scale irrigation, and changes to consumption patterns of agricultural goods
The Netherlands
_____ were leaders in the agricultural revolution due to their population density
Jethro Tull
English agriculturist who tried to develop better farming methods through empirical research, such as using horses rather than oxen for plowing and sowing seed with drilling equipment for even distribution at the proper depth
Selective Breeding
technique which agricultural innovators used to improve livestock
Proletarianization
the transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners; ultimately caused by land enclosure
Slow or stagnant
Population growth pre-1700 was:
High
Population growth post-1700 was:
Overall lessened mortality: better infrastructure, better public health, fewer wars, more/better food
Reasons for population growth:
Cottage Industry
a stage of industrial development in which rural workers used hand tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in a market
Putting-Out System
the 18th century system of rural industry in which a merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers, who processed them and returned finished products to the merchant
unrestricted with underemployed labor, poor peasants and landless laborers willing to work for low wages
Advantages of the putting-out system:
Textile Industry
Rural industry most successfully developed in England in the:
Industrious Revolution
the shift that occurred as families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages instead of producing goods for household consumption; this reduced their economic self-sufficiency but increased their ability to purchase consumer goods
Guild System
the organization of artisanal production into trade-based associations, or guilds, each of which received a monopoly over its trade and the right to train apprentices and hire workers; exclusive in membership
Economic stability
The established guild system was mean to maintain _____ :
Economic Liberalism
a belief in free trade and competition based on Adam Smith’s argument (Wealth of Nations) that the invisible hand of free competition would benefit all individuals, rich and poor
Mercantilism
a system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation’s international power was based on its wealth
Navigation Acts
a series of English laws that controlled the import of goods to Britain and British colonies
War of Austrian Succession
eastern European war fought from 1740 - 1748 over possession of Silesia between Austria’s Maria Theresa and Prussia’s Frederick II over Silesia; English and French intervention
Seven Years’ War
English and French conflict in North America from 1756-1763; decisive victory for England
Treaty of Paris
the treaty that ended the Seven Years’ War in Europe and the colonies in 1763, and ratified British victory on all colonial fronts
Sugar and coffee
After the Treaty of Paris, French still stood strong in the _____ colonial trades:
Debt Peonage
a form of serfdom used in Spanish colonies that allowed a planter or rancher to keep his workers or slaves in perpetual debt bondage by periodically advancing food, shelter, and a little money
Transatlantic Slave Trade
the forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor on plantations and in other industries; trade reached its peak in the 18th century and ultimately involved more than 12 million Africans
Triangular Trade
trading system developed where African slaves would produce raw materials in the Americas to be manufactured in Europe
Abolished
The British _____ the slave trade in 1807:
Creole
someone of Spanish ancestry born in the Americas
mixed-race
European men often married indigenous women, creating a New World society with _____ peoples of differing social statuses:
India
Britain gained dominance over much of _____ by 1805:
convicted prisoners
Britain settled Australia in the late 18th century by establishing their first colonies made up of:
Nuclear Family
a familial structure consisting of parents and their dependent children, regarded as a basic social unit
increases
The age of marriages _____ in the 16th and 17th centuries
people usually had to be independent and mature, particularly relating to their income
Marriage age increased because:
left home
Young adults typically _____ to find work:
Servant Girls
a girl or woman employed as a domestic servant who performs household duties
Community Controls
a pattern of cooperation and common action in a traditional village that sought to uphold the economic, social, and moral stability of the closely knit community
undependable
Contraceptives of this time were largely:
Note 
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