22: Attitudes to Empire - The Role and Influence of Individuals

Reasons Nationalism Grew 1947-67

Urbanisation/Economic development from WW2. Education. Inspiration from Indian independence. Changed world after WW2 - both main powers are anti-imperialist. Failings of Britain to govern effectively. Political concessions. Unity and leadership helped bring disparate people together. Cold War -quest to find moderates to work with

Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)

1945 - Helped organise 5th Pan African Congress in London. Formed Convention People's Party (CPP) in 1949 which pressured British administration to make further concessions. Led a campaign of 'positive action' (inspired by Gandhi) in early 1950 which lead to mass strikes and rebellions. There was a general strike and boycott of British goods that lasted 21 days. Nkrumah was imprisoned but during the elections in 1953 the CPP won 35/38 seats. He was released and became Prime Minister between 1953 and 1957 - proved it was possible for indigenous people to rule responsibly. When independence was gained, he became the first prime minister of Ghana.

He responded to demands for change and understood importance of developing working relationship with British to gain confidence/ support in order to establish a stable state. After independence he became a figurehead for African nationalism and helped coordinate various African independence movements. Advocated Pan-Africanism - founded the Organisation of African Unity in 1963. He developed economic projects, but was criticised for spending too much time on Pan-African efforts, and neglecting his own countries' issues

Nnamdi Azikiwe (Nigeria)

Helped create National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) in 1944 and became its leader. Negotiated with the NPC to establish Nigeria's first government. Compromised and won trust of a variety of nationalists as well as the British - crucial in facilitating the peaceful transition to independence. He managed to persuaded the British that it was possible for different regional ethnic groups to work successfully together - British rule was not essential to avoid a civil war

Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya)

Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) - set up to defend Kikuyu land holdings. Member of the President of the Kenya Africa Union (KAU) from 1947. From 1948-51 he toured and lectured around the country campaigning for the return of land given to white settlers and for independence. Arrested and imprisoned in response to the Mau Mau rebellion - despite his connection being unlikely. Elected leader of Kenyan African National Union from May 1960. After his release in 1961 he began negotiations with the British which led to independence. Helped force a relatively prosperous capitalist state and oversaw a peaceful land reform process. - able to work with the British who were seeking moderates, especially after the Mau Mau rebellion

Hastings Banda (Malawi)

Spoke against colonialism and advocated independence. Toured the CAF urging people to become members of the Nyasaland African Congress and was received enthusiastically whenever he spoke. Arrested when state of emergency was declared. Released from prison and invited to London for talks of independence. Appointed PM of Nyasaland and chose the name Malawi.

Kenneth Kaunda (Zambia)

Formed the Zambian African National Congress in 1958. President of the United National Independence Party (UNIP) in 1960. Encouraged a 'Cha-Cha-Cha' campaign of civil disobedience - warned he would make Mau Mau look like a child's picnic. Led Zambia to independence as he helped Britain recognise that black majority rule was irresistible.

Ian Smith (Rhodesia)

Elected to S. Rhodesian Parliament in 1948. Supported proposed CAF. Formed the Rhodesian Front Party (RF) and became PM in 1964. Fearful of black majority rule he declared UDI in 1965 - claiming independence from Britain before it was granted

Milton Obote (Uganda)

A member of the Uganda National Congress. In 1957 he was elected to the Colonial Legislative Council. Britain was unwilling to grant independence too fast but he manoeuvred between different political factions. Appointed PM of independent Uganda in 1962. After independence he became tainted by power and the state became ridden with violence and corruption

Julius Nyerere (Tanzania)

Tanganyikan African Nationalist Union which had massive support. Demanded self-government and threatened strikes and boycotts - non-violence inspired by Gandhi. Elected to the Legislative Council in 1958-59 elections. Negotiated with British for independence. Tanganyika had little economic/strategic advantage to Britain - prepared to grant it independence

Onn Jaafar (Malaya)

Founded moderate United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). Campaigned against Malay Union est. by the British (1946) which was dissolved. Organised rallies, amassed public support. Worked with MCA to oppose the MCP during 'The Malayan Emergency' which helped Malaya to independence. Negotiated with the British for independence

Tunku Abdul Rahman (Malaya)

Member of the UMNO. Spearheaded alliance between the UMNO and MCA. Became first chief minister of Malaya. Declared his determination to seek independence from Britain without bloodshed. Led mission to London to negotiate for Malayan independence in Jan 1956 -which ended in securing immediate self-gov for Malaya and promise of independence

Tan Cheng Lock (Malaya)

Founded Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA). Fought for constitutional change and inter-ethnic co-operation

Worked with the UMNO. Trusted but the British who negotiated with him for independence.

Chin Peng (Malaya)

Malayan Communist Party. Fought the British with the Malayan National Liberation Amy (MNLA) in the Malayan Emergency 1948-60. Didn't gain as much support as expected from the people - suffered under British propaganda

Aung San (Burma)

Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League. Led Burmese Independence Army which helped Japan invade Burma in 1942. BIA incorporated into new Burmese army led by him

Became ruler of Legislative Council. Negotiated with British government in Jan 1947. Assassinated by a rival faction before Burma achieved independence.

Lee Kuan Yew (Singapore)

Founded the People's Association Party which had some communist leanings. Engaged in talks in London as part of the delegation seeking self-rule for Singapore. Came to power in 1959. Britain was fearful of communism so combined Singapore with Federation of Malaya

Ways leaders applied pressure on the British

Some were politicians that negotiated with the British. Peaceful non-cooperation - influenced by Gandhi. Violent protest or threats of violence e.g. rioting. Forming political organisations and fighting election campaigns

Ways they were influential

Led nationalism movements - often became leaders of the new nation states. Widespread support for them in the colonies - had public opinion behind them and the mass movement was important. Influential in other places e.g. Nkrumah. They had the opportunity to negotiate directly with the British

Ways they were less influential

Britain was prepared to grant independence. Not all nationalist leaders were supported by the people in the nation - e.g. Kenyatta and there was conflict after independence. Within African colonies there was the fear that power would be seized by one tribe, region or religious group. Britain was in a position to play off one group against another as it had done effectively in the past e.g. Nkrumah and Ashanti tribe- similar problems in Asia with communism. Britain could hope for support from conservative vested interest groups within the colonies if there was threat of social upheaval. Britain had the military power to hold nationalist movements in check. Britain allowed movements to grow through constitutional reforms. Britain wanted to maintain some control despite decolonisation - deliberately chose people they thought would create a stable situation

Why colonial administrating was harder

International pressures. Internal pressures who now have some kind of political representation. British government - asking them to enact change which was difficult to do. They had to be tough, remarkably politically astute and able to judge a fast-changing public mood. They were required to implement changes which previously had seemed unthinkable and willing and able to deal with a vast array of frequently aggressive nationalist leaders, sometimes in an atmosphere of intimidation and violence. However, the more interventionalist stance sometimes take was facilitated by the vast increase in staffing strength of the colonial office which increased by 45% between 1945-54. Between 1945-53 the colonial service attracted some 11 000 new recruits

Sir Andrew Cohen

In 1947 he was appointed Assistant Under-Secretary of State for the Colonial Office's African division. In 1952, he was appointed Governor of Uganda where he served until 1957. He knew decolonisation was inevitable and wanted it to be a managed retreat. He was deeply concerned by the treatment of Africans in the colonies. He believed in listening to nationalists, cultivated contacts in both West and central Africa and in devolving power to indigenous officials with the superior knowledge of local affairs. The Cohen Report of 1947 set out a new direction for colonial policy, mapping a route through gradual reform by which they could eventually emerge as independent, democratic and stable nations. He proposed the Central African Federation because he was concerned about the effects of apartheid. Between 1953 and 1955 there was major unrest in Buganda following the proposal to set up the East African Federation as they thought that it would erase their culture. Their king, Kabaka Mutesa II, called for a separation of Buganda from the rest of Uganda. Cohen deported the Mutesa in 1953 which caused a storm of protest so he declared a state of emergency. Kabaka was restored in 1955 and he became a leading player in deciding how independent Uganda would be governed and became the country's first President in 1962. Cohen brought Africans into government and encouraged the development of political parties as well as expanding the University of Makerere. He helped to lay the groundwork for Uganda's independence in 1962. Most African nations progressed much faster than he originally envisaged but his leadership did help to provide a blueprint against which progress could be measured/judged. The CAF ended in a failure and his handling of Buganda has been questioned

Sir John Macpherson

Governor of Nigeria from 1948-55. He knew decolonisation was inevitable and introduced gradual reform. He saw his role as a facilitator of self-rule and independence. He moved the colonial administration to Nigerians. He organised a major conference in 1951 to open discussions on a constitution which could accommodate the different regions and their competing political authorities. The federal 'Macpherson Constitution of 1951 stimulated political parties. The Colonial Secretary, Oliver Lyttleton had to approve a new constitution allowing for greater regional autonomy in 1954. He helped ensure that an independent Nigeria emerged in 1960 which did not collapse into separatism, anarchy or civil war

Sir Charles Arden-Clarke

Governor of the Gold Coast 1949. He increasingly saw his role as a facilitator of self-rule and independence. Secured the release of Nkrumah from prion in 1951 and brought him into government - central in defusing a volatile situation in the wake of riots, strikes and imprisonments in W Africa. Managed relations between Nkrumah and Ashanti politicians who were concerned about the domination of an intellectual elite in a new Ghanaian state. Sometimes he had to rein Nkrumah in, but his strategy was largely based on working closely with him. He delayed the timetable for independence to allow for a third general election under colonial rule in 1956, in order for Nkrumah to demonstrate that he carried the support of the people, despite growing Ashanti criticism of him. He proved a skilled and practical politician in dealing with highly complex and swiftly changing situation. He was held in such high regard that he was asked by the Ghanaian government to become the country's first honorary 'Governor-General'

Evelyn Baring

Governor of Kenya from 1952-59. Was committed to retaining control in Kenya during the Mau Mau rebellion. He declared a State of Emergency on 20 October 1952 in response to the Mau Mau rebellion. He played an integral role in the destruction of the Kikuyu people during the brutal suppression of the Mau Mau uprising. He proved vital in the government's efforts to keep the violent realities of colonial rule from the British public. He managed to supress the Mau Mau rebellion but his harsh methods weakened Britain moral authority and support for nationalist increased

Sir Gerald Templer

High Commissioner of Malaya from 1952-54. He was appointed to deal with the emergency after the previous high commissioner was killed by communists. Advocated not for pouring more resources into Malaya to supress the people but rather to get the people of Malaya to support Britain against the communists. He tried to win the hearts and minds of the people who were rebelling against British rule. He fought to grant Malayan citizenship to over 2.6m Malayan residents - seeking political and social equality for all Malayans. He instituted incentive schemes - rewarding surrendering rebels and those who encouraged them to surrender. He used strict curfews. He involved the local population in the fight against the guerrillas by increasing the number of Malay battalions and strengthening the Home Guard. He promised independence one the guerrillas had been defeated which won him the support of many nationalists. The situation in Malaya was dramatically improved when he left. His campaign is often studied as a model for how such operations should be conducted. Involving local people helped to unite the racially divided Malayan people against insurrection. However, the rebels hadn't been completely defeated

Sir Donald MacGillivray

High Commissioner in Malaya 1954-57. Knew decolonisation was inevitable in Malaya and wanted to bring it about. Openly discussed Malaya's independence with the Malays. Part of the Monckton Commission to review the CAF. Signed the Federation of Malaya Agreement in 1957. Britain maintained its influence in Malaya - it stayed in the Stirling Area and Britain assumed responsibility for their defence. There was no further violence in the region