AP Psych Unit 8 - Personality Theory

Personality

• unique combinations of emotion, motivation, behavior, etc. that characterizes an individual & sets them apart

• consistent patterns of mood and emotion

Trait Theory

personality traits are genetic & coded into our DNA, just as physical traits

Franz Gall

• founder of phrenology

• theorized personality as a result of brain specialty areas

Phrenology

attempts to construct personality profiles by measuring cranial bumps and indentations

Gordon Allport

• he created a cataloge of human personalities

• categorized ~18,000 human personality traits combinations

• first to propose the genetic nature of personality theory

Raymond Cattell

• Identified 35 dominant / recessive trait patterns of personality

• 16 factors

• created the basis of the modern personality test through statistical factor analysis

Hans Eysneck

• classified personality traits / factors into two dimensional domains

• 4 personality type combinations

• Introversion, Extroversion, Emotional Stability, and Neurotic Emotion

Introversion

• quiet

• reserved

• independent

• they gain energy from solitude

• more responsive to stimuli

• too much dopamine overstimulates these people

• happy / content

Extroversion

• active

• expressive

• sociable

• energy from social interaction

• low sensitivity to dopamine

• constant need for dopamine

Emotional Stability

• calm temperament

• less reactive to stress

Neurotic Emotion

• prone to mood swings

• characterized by negative emotional states

Eysneck’s Dual-Dimension Personality Types

• Introverted - Stable

  • calm, even-tempered, quiet personalities

• Introverted - Neurotic

  • reclusive, unsocial, pessimistic

• Extroverted - Stable

  • sociable, outgoing

• Extroverted - Neurotic

  • reckless, carelessly impulsive

Five Factor Model

Personality based on a spectrum within five factors → OCEAN

• Openness

• Conscientiousness

• Extroversion

• Agreeableness

• Neuroticism

Openness

being inquisitive, receptive, open to new ideas

Conscientiousness

being systematic, meticulous, detail oriented

Agreeableness

being sensitive, empathetic, trusting

Neuroticism

being anxious, temperamental, moody

Type A Personality

• impatient → time urgency

• highly motivated by deadlines

• need for calendars

• competitive & ambitious

• perfectionists

• difficulty relaxing / maintaining sleep

• long established medical link to heart disease

Type B Personality

• calm & relaxed

• patient & reserved

• flexible and adaptive to change

• more tolerant to time pressures & stress

Sigmund Freud

Father of “modern” psychology; founder of psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis

• studies the subconscious

• studies the conflicts between the conscious and the unconscious mind

Conscious Mind

thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that you are aware of

Psyche

underlying motives, impulses, and desires that form the true basis of one’s personality

3 Unconscious Determinants of the Psyche

1. id

2. ego

3. superego

Id

the source of human’s most basic / primitive drives and urges; pleasure principle → instant gratification

Ego

the establishment of rules and limits; reality principle → realizing you can’t always get what you want

Superego

the development / structure of ethical consciousness; moral principle → restraining behavioral impulses, not because it is against the rules, but because of a moral compass of right and wrong

Objective Personality Test

• personality inventory based upon standardized questionnaires

• standardized prompts based upon trait theory principles

• statistical factor analysis

MMPI-II

• Personality test

• 500 questions (true, false, cannot say)

• standard assessment for clinical diagnosis for personality disorders

Criticisms of MMPI-II

• difficult to truly quantify the unique nature of human personality

• typing overly simplifies and generalizes the unique nature of individual personalities

Projective Personality Assessments

• psychodynamic assessment of personality

• allows the test taker to project their unconscious personality onto a series of unstructured stimuli

• allows therapists and researchers to lower the inhibitions of the conscious mind, allowing the psyche to communicate more openly

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

personality test where a test taker is to make up a story or interpret descriptions about a series of pictures, drawings, with guided prompts

Rorschach Inkblot Test

• remains the most commonly used projective test

• researcher records a patient’s verbal and physical responses to a series of cards with non-structured, symmetrical stimuli

Freud’s Stage Theory

• Freud said that personality develops in 5 unconscious stages

• each stage consists of a series of unconscious conflicts that need to be resolved

• if conflicts are not resolved at the appropriate time, behaviors will become fixated into adult personality characteristics

Oral Stage (birth - 18 months)

• first stage

• infantile need to explore surroundings with their mouths

• rooting reflex establishes mother-child bond

• unfulfilled needs in infancy = oral fixations in adult behavior

• overindulgence → dependency & passiveness

• underindulgence → aggressive & sadistic

Anal Stage (age ½ - 2½)

• second stage

• development of ego

• development of bodily control

• fixations: anal-retention and anal-expulsiveness

  • anal-retentive = excessive use of self control

  • anal-expulsive = lack of self control

Phallic Stage (age 2½ to 5 years)

• third stage

• discovering what makes boys and girls different

• attraction to parent of opposite sex; jealousy and resentment

• Oedipus Complex & Penis Envy

Oedipus Complex (Castration Anxiety)

in boys, the attraction to the mother which causes competition with the father, and therefore a hatred of authority

Penis Envy (Electra Complex)

in girls, they blame their mother for anatomical deficiency (lack of a penis)

Latency Stage (ages 5 - 12 / puberty)

• fourth stage

• sexual impulses towards opposite sex parent dissolves

• resentment is replaced with idolization; development of gender roles and norms

Genital Stage (puberty - adulthood)

• fifth stage

• childhood conflicts are now manifested into adult psychosexual behaviors and tendencies

• personalities become solidified due to any lingering unresolved issues and conflicts

Neo-Freudians

• contemporaries of Freud

• Focused on the fundamentals of psychoanalysis

• changed the name to psychodynamics to signify the changes of human personalities

Carl Jung

• Neo-Freudian

• said that the psyche is composed of the collective and personal unconscious

• personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts and archetypal relationships

Archetypes

collection of images, symbols, etc. that represent stereotypical human roles

Collective Unconscious

unconscious composed of universal archetypes common to all humans

Personal Unconscious

unconscious shaped by unique, individual experiences and social relations

Alfred Adler

• Neo-Freudian

• said that personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts + inferiority complex

Inferiority Complex

actions intended to overcompensate for lack of self-wroth and inadequacies

Karen Horney

• Neo-Freudian

• said that personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts + socio-cultural factors

• feminist psychology

• said neurosis was a sociocultural reaction

Erik Erikson

• Neo-Freudian

• said that personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts + interpersonal & social relationships

• personality develops according to 8 psychological stages

Defense Mechanisms

unconscious protections from the psyche that prevent the conscious awareness of threatening feelings of guilt and anxiety

Repression

the inability to retrieve memory or have awareness of unpleasant / harmful events, behaviors, or thoughts

Regression

reactions of immaturity when confronted with stress; reverting back to behavior typical for early stages of development

Displacement

transference of anger and frustration away from the source of the stress and channeling it onto less threatening objects or people

Denial

unconscious refusal to accept reality so that one can avoid discomforting emotions

Reaction Formation

behaviors and actions that are opposite of one’s true wishes or desires in effort to keep embarrassing emotions secret

Rationalization

making false excuses & illogical justifications to explain unacceptable behavior or unpleasant emotion

Projection

imposing one’s own impulses, feelings, etc. onto another thing or person; assuming how you feel about someone or something is reciprocated

Sublimation

converting unacceptable impulses, desires, etc. into more socially acceptable behaviors

Abraham Maslow

• he said that human nature is to strive for self-actualization

• achieving self-actualization is difficult and filled with obstacles

• personality is shaped by how one responds to adversity

Carl Rogers

• founder of humanistic client-centered therapy

• said personality is developed with conscious evaluation and self reflection

• self concept & self esteem

Self-Concept

conscious self assessment of physical and psychological traits, attitudes, goals, etc.

Self-Esteem

the degree to which one is satisfied with their self concept

Julian Rotter

• he came up with the idea of the loci of control

External Locus of Control

the belief that ones fate is determined by circumstances beyond one’s control

Internal Locus of Control

the belief that one has control over their fate and choices

Self Efficacy

the personal belief / confidence that you are able to successfully accomplish a goal

Martin Seligman

• founder of positive psychology

• learned helplessness and learned optimism

Learned Helplessness

defeated / depressed condition that develops from a perceived absence of control over the outcome of a situation

Learned Optimism

therapy technique in which the patient must learn to cognitively reprogram pessimistic attitudes

Personality Disorder

Enduring patterns of neurotic character and behavior that deviate dysfunctionally from the norms of social appropriateness; 3 clusters

• A → odd / eccentric traits

• B → dramatic / emotional / erratic traits

• C → anxious / fearful traits

Paranoid PD

characterized by high levels of suspicion, distrust, exaggerated envy, and jealousy; often misidentified as paranoid schizophrenia

Schizoid PD

emotionally non-responsive; flat effect → no ups and downs of emotion; slow, elongated monotonous speech; inability to become emotionally attached to people, social relationships, even pets

Schizotypal PD

• eccentric behaviors → odd, weird, obnoxious

• lack of social skills

• capable of social attachment but difficult to manage because of odd, eccentric behaviors

Histrionic PD

• displays of excessive dramatic emotions

• highly excitable, overreactive personality

• excessive demand for attention

• constant need of approval

Narcissistic PD

• highly exaggerated sense of self importance

• pride and flaunting of personal accomplishments

• inability to accept blame or responsibility for their actions

• preoccupation with how others perceive them

• inability to empathize

• controlling and manipulative

Dependent PD

• excessive reliance on others

• difficulty making independent decisions

• high levels of anxiety and or depression when removed from / absent of interpersonal relationship(s)

Obsessive Compulsive PD (not OCD)

• excessive concern with perfectionism

• exaggerated dependency of structure and order

• tendency to require excessive time to complete tasks

Borderline PD

• symptoms range from psychosis and neurosis

• often referred to as “emotional instability pd”

• characterized by volatile emotional instability

• fragile sense of sense of self concept

• irrational / excessive fear of abandonment

• destructive behaviors become outlet

Avoidant PD

• extreme feelings of inadequacy

• low self esteem

• repetitive avoidance of social interactions and limited interpersonal relationships

• afraid of rejection and humiliation

Antisocial PD

• blatant disregard for the rights and feelings of others

• callous and cruel actions

• most violent of all mental disorders

• lack of empathy - apathy

Trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

Empirically Derived Test

a test created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups

Reciprocal Determinism

states a person's behavior is influenced by and influences both their internal personal factors (thoughts, feelings) and their external environment, creating a continuous interaction between the three elements where each factor shapes the others

Free Association

a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind

Unconditional Positive Regard

a caring, accepting, non-judgmental attitude which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

Coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

Problem-focused Coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor / how we interact with the stressor

Emotional-focused Coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding / ignoring the stressor and attending to emotional needs

Personal Control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

Subjective well-being

a person's perception of their life's quality, or how happy they are

Feel good, do good phenomenon

the tendency for people to be more likely to engage in helpful or altruistic behaviors when they are already in a positive mood or feeling good about themselves

Adaptation Level Phenomenon

a psychological concept that describes how our perception of stimuli changes over time; the tendency for our baseline or reference point to shift based on our previous experiences

Relative Deprivation

describes the perception of being worse off than others, even when one's objective circumstances may be relatively favorable

Broaden & Build Theory

positive emotions expand an individual's awareness and encourage novel, creative thoughts and actions

Terror-Management Theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores peoples emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending doom