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Entity Lower Grades
Effort = Low ability, Failure = Low ability, Strategy = Decrease effort
Fundamental Lexical Approach
whatever is important we have a word for it - exploit the dictionary`
Fundamental Lexical Approach Allport
psycholexical study: results in 18,000 person descriptive English words, Initial division into traits (about 5,000) states, activities
Fundamental Lexical Approach Cattell
reductionism into 200 clusters, 35 variables and finally 16 personality factors (16PF)
Fundamental Lexical Approach Norman and Goldbery
Big 5 OCEAN, redid Cattell's project, using modern techniques (multiple judges, computers)
Big Five
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
Openness - Big Five
originality, open-mindedness - Careful, methodical, thinks before speaking, task-focused, efficient, not easily distracted
Conscientiousness - Big Five
constraint, control - Careful, methodical, thinks before speaking, task-focused, efficient, not easily distracted
Extraversion - Big Five
enthusiasm, energy - Talkative, outgoing, not reserved, assertive, forceful, energetic
Agreeableness - Big Five
altruism, affection - Considerate, cooperative, not rude, prosocial, trusting, not cold or aloof
Neuroticism - Big Five
negative affectivity, nervousness - Tense and easily upset, not relaxed vs. emotionally stable, handles stress well
Factor Analysis
Norman and Goldberg - Statistical method to identify clusters (or groups) of correlated traits, Reduces a large # of items into factors (data reduction)
Interpersonal effects # of partners
life outcome for high extraversion and for likeability high agreeableness
Juvenile Delinquency
life outcome for low agreeableness and low conscientiousness School performances (grades) - high consciousness (work performance, focus tasks) and high openness (enjoying learning)
Longevity/longer life
life outcome for high conscientiousness
Happiness
life outcome for high extraversion and low neuroticism
Development change in most people
Decrease in extraversion, openness and neuroticism, Increase in conscientiousness and agreeableness
Stability and change across lifespan
Less stability early on (teens + 20s) and old age, Individual differences in big 5 are stable over years - Particularly stable after 30s, Changes due to events that affect central aspects of identity (career change, divorce, relocation, off the social clock - culture specific, time table, etc)
Antidepressants
Drug induced changes (temp.) - increase extraversion and decrease neuroticism
Psychedelic drugs
Drug induced changes (temporary) - Increase openness
Psychotherapy
3 months or more decrease neuroticism effectively, Same success in increasing extraversion
Recent attention and effort to increase conscientiousness
C as in human capital, People high in conscientiousness - earn more, save more, exercise more, eat healthier, less likely to get divorced
Big Five Allport
did the first study using the fundamental lexical approach but did not use factor analysis - didn't like broad dimensions, kept 5,000 traits - Missing the unique organization of trait in the person
Cardinal traits
a trait that is your most fundamental trait (ex. compassion for Dalai Lama)
Idiographic method preferred
everybody is so different, unique that on single descriptive system (Big 5) cannot possibly describe all
Big Five Cattell
5 factors are not enough "common traits" and created 16PF
PEN model
Eysenck - P (Psychoticism), E (Extraverson), N (Neuroticism)
Psychoticism - PEN
"abnormal" qualities - aggressiveness, a lack of empathy, interpersonal coldness and antisocial behavioral tendencies
Extraversion - PEN
Introversion - sociability, activity, liveliness and excitability
Neuroticism - PEN
anxious, depressed, shy and moody
Lemon Drop Test
Results: Introverts salivated significantly more in response to drops than extroverts, Introverts - have more sensitive central nervous system, have lower thresholds to arousal, Extroverts - are less excitable than introverts to the same stimuli, Explanation: Extroverts seek stimulation in order to reach the same levels or excitement
Nonhuman Animal Personality
Permit experimental studies of personality, Study personality change and development, Further understand genetic influences on personality, Promote animal and human welfare
Canine Big Five
O - problem solving, C - impulse control, E - energy level, A - expression of expression, N - emotional stability
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov, a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
Tabula Rasa
Blank slate - Change the environment and you change the behavior, Behavior is a direct function of situation
Tabula Rasa Limitations and Applications
Complete control of environment (S), Behavior modification/Analysis is NOT psychotherapy
Conditioned Emotional Reaction
Development of an emotional reaction to previously neutral stimulus, Little Albert's fear of rats
System Desensitization
a treatment for phobias in which the patient is exposed to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli and taught relaxation techniques.
Unconditioning
extinction of "learned fear", gradual exposure
Operant conditioning
change, influence behavior through reward and/or punishment - generally reward works better than punishment
Positive reinforcement
Presents reinforcer after target behavior, Increases the probability of response in future
Primary Reinforcer
its value is automatic (ex. food and water)
Secondary Reinforcer
its reinforcing value is acquired through learning (ex. money and tokens)
Punishment
Presents an aversive event or removes a positive event following a response, Decrease the frequency of that response
Negative Reinforcement
Removes an aversive event immediately after a response has been performed, Increase the frequency of that response
Continuous/time based
Schedule of reinforcement - every time when the target behavior happens
Fixed Ratio
Schedule of reinforcement - reinforcements appear after a certain # of responses
Intermittent/variable Ratio
Schedule of reinforcement - unpredictable schedule, enhance resistance to extinction (ex. casino, social media)
Token Economy
Select target behavior, make reinforcement contingent on desired responses
Boundary conditions
fine in mental health words, prisons, nonhuman animals
Stimulus-Response Theory
Personality structure = learned habits (or S-R bonds), Development of habits S-R associations as a result of rewards Drive = stimulus strong enough to elicit response behavior
Innaate/primary drives
hunger, pain
Learned, secondary drives
fear, anxiety - stimulus to give you pain
Conflicts and SR Theory
when you are facing a stimulus/situation w/ 2 or more alternatives and each requires a difference action
Approach - avoidance conflict
alternatives: pros and cons, basic ingredients of neurotic behavior
Approach - approach conflict
torn between two desirable alternative
Avoidance - avoidance conflict
two undesirable alternatives, paying off credit vs. no entertainment $$, procrastination
Behavioral genetics - twin and adoption studies
Comparing the similarities of members in twin pairs, Twins provide a naturally occurring experiment
Monozygotic
identical or maternal
Dizygotic
non identical or traditional (share 50% of genes)
H squared
variance in trait accounted for genetic factors divided by the total variance in trait (G / G + E), Population and measurement specific
Reactive
the same environmental experiences may have different effects on individuals with different genetic makeup
Evocative
individuals with different genetic makeup may evoke different response from the environment
Selective
out genetic makeup leads to differences in selection of environment
Shared environment
those shared by sibling as a result of growing up in the same family
Nonshared environment
those not shared by siblings growing up in the same family, More important for personality development than the shared experiences
Birth Order Conscientiousness
More in first born
Birth Order Agreeableness and Openness to Experience
More in last born
Birth Order - Extraversion and Neuroticism
Depends on facets
Only children
between first and last on most traits except for conscientiousness more like first
Middle children
are mediator (high agreeableness)
Language and learning in childhood
sensitive critical periods children are genetically prepared for language acquisition (Chomsky), Experience/Stimulation/Function is critical - "use it or lose it", Most organisms are pre-wired or prepared for life experience in some ways, Biology doesn't determine outcome but plays important role by influencing what we attend to and learn quickly
Evolved psychology mechanisms (EPM)
behaviors that were adoptive in ancestral history
Proximal causation
current ex. sex "feels good"
Distal causation
our evolutionary past initially to pass on genes
Sensation seeking
More risk sex à more reproduction, Impulsivity à new opportunities for resources, greater vigilance for ancestors, More feel good neurotransmitters Trade off- high mortality, high pathogen prevalence
Physical attractiveness
Waist to hip ratio, Men - "V shape and height", Women - hourglass figure
Facial Attractiveness
Face provides visual signs of fertility and health - symmetry, hormone markers, Golden ratio - some facial features lead to be judged attractive
Across cultures - women and men wanted
Kind and understanding, exciting personality, intelligent and healthy
Mate preferences
Preferences that promote reproductive success will be selected
Women mate preferences
prefer men who are providers, good earning capacity
Men male preferences
prefer females who shows signs of fertility, physically attractive
Paternal investment
Mate Preferences - biological difference between sexes case women to invest more in parenting
Parental probability theory
Jealousy - male distress over fidelity, uncertain whether child is his
Jealousy in men
have greater concern about sexual rivals and place greater value on chastity
Jealousy in women
distress over emotional attachment, potential loss of husband's resources
Men age preferences
Men in 20's - interested in younger and slightly older women (both still fertile), Men in 30's - interested in women who are 5 years younger, Men in 50's - interested in women who are 10 - 12 year young
Women age preferences
attracted to men who are older
Kelly's view
Behavior = F (Perception ([S]), Most important - how individual uniquely perceives, interprets, constructs the world
Constructive Alternativism
There may be an objective truth but we can't know it - can construe it, There are alternative ways to construe the same event, We should play with "make believe" check the "what-ifs" try alternative construct and see where they lead you
Constructive Alternativism Goal
We are victims of how we constructed out past, Goal: reconstruct self in new ways, become a new person and behave in new ways
Push theory
(carrot theory) - people motivated by external reinforcers, rewards and punishments (behaviorist)
Pull theory
internal drives/motives that push or propel the person forward (psychoanalytic theories)
Jackass Theory
organism is always attractive: cognitively active - always processing information
Dynamics of functioning
interplay of A wish to expand construct system (anxiety provoking) and Desire to avoid threat of disruption of that system
Psychopathology
problems lie in malfunctioning / disorder of the construct system
Fixed therapy role
helping the client to try new constructs, new ways of thinking and behaving (not completely reconstructing person)
Experimentation
Conditions for change - create atmosphere in therapy session - try out new constructs, new ways of thinking, and behaving
New elements
Conditions for change - experiences person to construe
Validation data
Conditions for change - feedback whether the constructions work
Note 
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