World history exam 2

• Scientific Revolution

A 16th–18th century intellectual movement emphasizing observation, experimentation, and reason over tradition.

• Gutenberg Printing Press

Invented c. 1440; revolutionized information spread, enabling mass literacy and scientific discourse.

• Geocentric Model

Earth-centered universe theory; dominant before Copernicus.

• “Doubting Thomas”

Biblical figure symbolizing skepticism; metaphor for empirical inquiry.

• Copernicus

Proposed heliocentrism; challenged Church doctrine.

• On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

Copernicus’s 1543 work introducing heliocentrism.

• Johannes Kepler

Mathematician who formulated laws of planetary motion.

• Heliocentric Model

Sun-centered universe; foundational to modern astronomy.

• Rene Descartes

Philosopher of rationalism; “I think, therefore I am.”

• Francis Bacon

Advocate of inductive reasoning and the scientific method.

• Galileo

Used telescopic observation to support heliocentrism; condemned by the Church.

• Isaac Newton

Synthesized physics and astronomy; formulated laws of motion and gravity.

• Principia, 1687

Newton’s seminal work on universal laws of motion and gravitation.

• Salons

Enlightenment-era gatherings for intellectual exchange, often hosted by women.

• Philosophes

Enlightenment thinkers advocating reason, liberty, and progress.

• Voltaire

Critic of Church and monarchy; championed freedom of speech and religion.

• Adam Smith

Economist who promoted free markets and limited government.

• Wealth of Nations

Smith’s 1776 treatise on capitalism and economic liberalism.

• John Locke

Philosopher of natural rights and government by consent.

- Tabula Rasa

Locke’s idea that humans are born as blank slates, shaped by experience.

- Natural Rights

Life, liberty, and property—inalienable rights central to Enlightenment thought.

• Rahel Varnhagen

Jewish salonnière who fostered intellectual dialogue in Berlin.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Advocated the “general will” and education reform.

• Immanuel Kant

Philosopher of autonomy and moral reason; “Dare to know!”

• P.I.T.R.

Acronym for causes—Privilege, Inequality, Taxation, Representation—fueling revolutionary unrest.

• Estates General

Traditional assembly of France’s three estates; reconvened in 1789 after 175 years.

• Louis XVI

King of France during the Revolution; executed for treason in 1793.

• Marie Antoinette

Queen of France; symbol of royal excess; executed during the Reign of Terror.

• Bourgeoisie

Educated middle class; key drivers of revolutionary ideas and demands.

• Tennis Court Oath

June 1789 pledge by Third Estate to draft a constitution after being locked out of the Estates General.

• Olympe de Gouges

Feminist writer; authored Declaration of the Rights of Woman; executed in 1793.

- Meritocracy

Revolutionary ideal promoting advancement based on talent, not birth.

- The Fall of the Bastille

July 14, 1789; symbolic start of the Revolution as Parisians stormed the prison.

• Émigrés

Nobles who fled France during the Revolution; often plotted counter-revolution.

• Sans-Culottes

Radical working-class revolutionaries; pushed for social equality and direct democracy.

• Robespierre

Jacobin leader; architect of the Reign of Terror; executed in 1794.

• Jacobins

Radical political club advocating republicanism and centralized power.

• The Committee for Public Safety

Emergency government during the Terror; oversaw trials and executions.

• The Directory

Five-man executive replacing the Terror; marked a shift toward moderation.

• Regicide

The act of killing a king; applied to Louis XVI’s execution.

• The Guillotine

Symbol of revolutionary justice; used extensively during the Terror.

• Thermidorean Reaction

July 1794 backlash against the Terror; led to Robespierre’s fall.

• The Consulate

Government formed after the Directory; led by Napoleon as First Consul.

• Napoleon Bonaparte

Military leader who rose to power post-Revolution; crowned himself Emperor in 1804.

• Lucien Bonaparte

Napoleon’s brother; helped orchestrate the coup of 18 Brumaire.

• Eighteenth of Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799)

Coup that ended the Directory and established the Consulate.

• Concordat with the Papacy & The Organic Articles

Reconciliation with the Catholic Church; asserted state control over religion.

• Nepotism

Napoleon’s practice of placing family members in positions of power across Europe.

• The Louisiana Purchase

1803 sale of French territory to the U.S.; funded Napoleon’s wars.

• Napoleon’s Self-Coronation

Symbolic act of independence from papal authority in 1804.

• The Napoleonic Code

Legal reform emphasizing equality before the law, property rights, and secular governance.

• Toussaint Louverture

Leader of the Haitian Revolution; former slave turned general.

• The Haitian Revolution

1791–1804 slave revolt; first successful Black republic.

• Free People of Color

Mixed-race Haitians with limited rights; key revolutionary actors.

• Grands Blancs

Wealthy white plantation owners; resisted revolutionary change.

• Petits Blancs

Poor whites; often clashed with Free People of Color.

• The Peninsular War (1807)

Napoleon’s invasion of Spain; weakened colonial control.

• Father Miguel Hidalgo

Mexican priest who launched independence movement in 1810.

• El Grito de Dolores

Hidalgo’s call to arms; sparked Mexican War of Independence.

• Simon Bolivar & Gran Colombia

Liberator of northern South America; envisioned a united republic.

• Jose de San Martin

Led southern independence movements in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.

• Battle of Jena (1806)

Napoleon’s victory over Prussia; spurred German nationalism.

• The Confederation of the Rhine

Alliance of German states under Napoleon’s influence.

• Waterloo

1815 defeat of Napoleon by British and Prussian forces; ended his rule.

• Klemens Von Metternich

Austrian diplomat; architect of post-Napoleonic order.

• The Congress of Vienna

1815 meeting to restore European stability and monarchies.

• The Balance of Power

Diplomatic strategy to prevent dominance by any one nation.

• Conservatism

Ideology favoring tradition, monarchy, and resistance to revolutionary change.

Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment Timeline

- 1543 – Copernicus publishes On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (Introduces heliocentrism, challenging geocentric orthodoxy.)

- 1609–1619 – Kepler formulates laws of planetary motion (Refines heliocentric theory with elliptical orbits.)

- 1632 – Galileo publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Defends heliocentrism; later tried by the Inquisition.)

- 1687 – Newton publishes Principia Mathematica (Synthesizes physics and astronomy into universal laws.)

- 1700s – Salons flourish across Europe (Intellectual hubs for Enlightenment discourse.)

- 1776 – Adam Smith publishes Wealth of Nations (Lays foundation for classical economics.)

- 1789 – French Revolution begins (Enlightenment ideas catalyze political upheaval.)

French Revolution Timeline

- May 1789 – Estates General convened (First meeting since 1614; sparks revolutionary momentum.)

- June 1789 – Tennis Court Oath (Third Estate vows to draft a constitution.)

- July 14, 1789 – Storming of the Bastille (Symbolic start of the Revolution).

- 1791 – Olympe de Gouges writes Declaration of the Rights of Woman (Advocates gender equality amid revolutionary fervor.)

- 1792 – Monarchy abolished; France declared a republic (Radical phase begins.)

- January 1793 – Execution of Louis XVI (Regicide) (Marks irreversible break with monarchy.)

- 1793–1794 – Reign of Terror under Robespierre (Thousands executed via guillotine.)

- July 1794 – Thermidorean Reaction (Robespierre overthrown; Terror ends.)

- 1795 – The Directory established (Moderate government replaces radical rule.)

Napoleonic Era Timeline

- 1799 – Coup of 18 Brumaire (Napoleon becomes First Consul.)

- 1804 – Napoleon crowns himself Emperor (Asserts dominance over Church and state.)

- 1803 – Louisiana Purchase (France sells territory to U.S. to fund wars.)

- 1804 – Napoleonic Code enacted (Legal reforms emphasizing equality and property rights.)

- 1806 – Battle of Jena & Confederation of the Rhine (Napoleon defeats Prussia; reorganizes German states.)

- 1807–1814 – Peninsular War (France vs. Spain) (Drains French resources; sparks Latin American revolts.)

- 1815 – Battle of Waterloo (Napoleon defeated; ends his rule.)

Haitian & Latin American Revolutions Timeline

- 1791 – Haitian Revolution begins (Led by enslaved people and Free People of Color.)

- 1804 – Haiti declares independence (First Black republic; abolishes slavery.)

- 1810 – El Grito de Dolores by Father Hidalgo (Launches Mexican independence movement.)

- 1819 – Bolivar liberates northern South America (Forms Gran Colombia.)

- 1821–1824 – San Martin leads southern campaigns (Secures independence for Argentina, Chile, Peru.)

- Author (Declaration of Rights of Women)

Olympe de Gouges (playwright and political activist).

- Context (Declaration of Rights of Women)

Direct critique of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

- Purpose (Declaration of Rights of Women)

To expose the exclusion of women from revolutionary rights and demand full civic equality for women.

- Article I – Equality (Declaration of Rights of Women)

“Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights.”

De Gouges asserts that natural rights apply equally to women.

- Marriage & Property Rights (Declaration of Rights of Women)

Advocates for equal rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance, and property ownership—areas where women were legally subordinate.

• Political Participation (Declaration of Rights of Women)

Demands women’s right to vote, hold office, and participate in law-making.

• Critique of Male Hypocrisy (Declaration of Rights of Women)

De Gouges accuses revolutionary men of denying women the very liberty they claimed for themselves.

• Author (Justification of the Use of Terror)

Maximilien Robespierre, leader of the Jacobins

• Context (Justification of the Use of Terror)

Was delivered during the Reign of Terror to defend the revolutionary government's harsh measures.

• Core Argument (Justification of the Use of Terror)

Terror is not arbitrary violence—it is “prompt, severe, inflexible justice” and a necessary tool to defend liberty.

• Virtue & Terror (Justification of the Use of Terror)

Robespierre claims that virtue without terror is powerless, and terror without virtue is destructive. “Terror is nothing other than prompt, severe, inflexible justice

• Enemies of the Revolution (Justification of the Use of Terror)

He argues that counter-revolutionaries threaten the Republic and must be eliminated to preserve freedom.

- Republic of Virtue (Justification of the Use of Terror)

The ideal society is built on civic morality and equality, but must be protected by force during times of crisis.

- Moral Paradox (Justification of the Use of Terror)

Uses Enlightenment ideals to justify violence

Liberty must be defended even through repression.

- Legacy & Impact (Justification of the Use of Terror)

This speech rationalized mass executions and deepened the Terror.

Robespierre himself was executed in July 1794 during the Thermidorean Reaction.

- Context (Napoleon’s Account of his Coup d’État)

Written after the Coup of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), which ended the French Directory and established the Consulate.

• Purpose (Napoleon’s Account of his Coup d’État)

Napoleon justifies his seizure of power as a necessary act to restore order and save the Republic from chaos and corruption.

• Tone & Strategy (Napoleon’s Account of his Coup d’État)

Presents himself as a reluctant savior—called by the people and army to rescue France.

• Key Claim (Napoleon’s Account of his Coup d’État)

“The Republic was falling. I was summoned to its aid.”

Frames the coup as patriotic, not authoritarian.

- Legacy (Napoleon’s Account of his Coup d’État)

Marks the transition from revolutionary instability to authoritarian rule under Napoleon.

- Context (The Carlsbad Resolutions)

Issued by Metternich after student-led nationalist protests in the German Confederation, including the assassination of a conservative writer.

• Purpose (The Carlsbad Resolutions)

Suppress liberal and nationalist movements across German states

• Key Provisions (The Carlsbad Resolutions)

Censorship of press and publications.

Surveillance of universities and student organizations.

Expulsion of professors promoting “radical” ideas

• Political Philosophy (The Carlsbad Resolutions)

Embodies reactionary conservatism—fear of revolution, emphasis on stability and monarchy.

• Legacy (The Carlsbad Resolutions)

Delayed liberal reforms in Central Europe

- Author (Letter to the Citizens of Color of Saint-Domingue)

French commissioners.

• Context (Letter to the Citizens of Color of Saint-Domingue)

Written during the Haitian Revolution, addressing Free People of Color in the colony of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti)

- Purpose of the Letter (Letter to the Citizens of Color of Saint-Domingue)

To affirm the rights of Free People of Color as French citizens and encourage their loyalty to the revolutionary government.