Memory

Episodic Memory

Memory of unique events tied to a specific context, such as time and place. It is supported by the hippocampus, which binds associations like person-place or item-context.

Semantic Memory

Context-independent factual knowledge, such as knowing that Paris is the capital of France.

Dual Code Theory (Paivio, 1971)

Proposes that memory is enhanced by combining verbal and visual representations, leading to richer memory traces. Explains the picture superiority effect where images are more memorable than words.

Distinctiveness in Memory

Memory is enhanced by unique or distinctive processing. The Von Restorff effect highlights how unique items in a similar context are remembered better.

Role of the Hippocampus in Memory

Critical for linking details to context and binding associations during memory encoding. Attention during encoding boosts hippocampal activity.

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)

Organises material for encoding.

Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC)

Supports semantic encoding and control.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory retrieval is more effective when cues match the cognitive context during encoding, such as matching semantic or rhyme-based processing.

Contextual Reinstatement

Recalling specific memory details (e.g., environment, emotions) helps trigger full memory recollection. Matching retrieval cues with encoding conditions enhances recall.

The Testing Effect

Regular testing improves long-term recall by enriching memory through semantic elaboration and expanding contextual cues. Found to significantly reduce forgetting over time (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).

Gist Memory

Memory includes semantic associations beyond studied content. It can lead to false memories (e.g., DRM illusion) due to reliance on "gist" rather than detailed recall.

Misinformation Effect

Post-event information can alter memory, as seen in Loftus & Palmer's car crash study, demonstrating the brain's tendency to update memories with new information.

Schema and Memory Errors

Schemas guide recall but can distort memory, leading to schema-expectancy errors (e.g., falsely recognizing high-schema objects).

Cognitive Interview

A memory retrieval technique for eyewitnesses involving context reinstatement, recalling events in reverse order, and describing details from different perspectives.

Spacing Effect

Revisiting material at spaced intervals enhances long-term retention compared to massed learning sessions.

Deep Encoding

Relating new information to existing schemas and organizing material meaningfully to enhance memory retention.

Mnemonic Strategies

Memory aids like associating information with visual images or creating keyword associations (e.g., "hippocampus" as a hippo on campus).

Gist vs. True Memories

True memories contain more sensory detail and visual cortex activity, while false memories often arise from reliance on gist or schema-related processing.

Active Attention

Eliminating distractions improves encoding, while processing information for distinctiveness and meaning enhances memory formation.

Source Monitoring

Evaluating the origins of memories to distinguish real from imagined events. Errors in source monitoring can lead to cryptomnesia or unconscious plagiarism.

Testing and Interleaved Practice

Testing yourself regularly and combining strategies like interleaving concepts improves memory retention more effectively than re-reading or summarizing.