AP Psychology - State of Consciousness

What is consciousness?

Consciousness consists of one’s moment-to-moment personal, subjective experiences.

What are qualia?

Qualia are the qualitative experiences of your conscious state.

What is the difference between consciousness and awareness?

Awareness is perception influencing behavior without language; Consciousness involves language to catalog experiences into memory.

Describe Freud’s iceberg theory of consciousness.

Freud likened the mind to an iceberg:

• Conscious: Above water, current experiences (i.e., whatever we were experiencing at the moment).

• Preconscious: Just below, easily retrieved thoughts (i.e., your phone number).

• Unconscious: The largest part, repressed urges and memories (i.e., primal sexual and aggressive urges as well as traumatic).

What does it mean when we say that consciousness is limited? What is change blindness?

Consciousness is limited in perceiving all information at once. Change blindness is the inability to notice significant environmental changes due to selective focus.

What is attention?

Attention is a selective focus on specific stimuli, acting as a gateway to conscious experience.

What was E.C. Cherry’s shadowing experiment?

Participants in Cherry's study shadowed an attended message while ignoring distractors through headphones. They noted unattended sound details but couldn't recall the content. For example, you can focus on a single conversation in the midst of a chaotic party; however, a particular pertinent stimulus, such as hearing your name or a juicy piece of gossip mentioned in another conversation, captures your attention.

What is filter theory?

Filter Theory (Donald Broadbent, 1958)(in attention psychology) suggests that the brain filters out most sensory information so we can focus on what’s important. Only selected information gets through to conscious awareness, while the rest is ignored.

What is the difference between endogenous and exogenous attention?

Endogenous attention is intentionally directed; exogenous attention is involuntarily captured by stimuli.

Describe how unconscious processing can influence behavior.

Unconscious thoughts, as in Freudian slips or selective listening, can shape perceptions and behaviors even if not consciously attended.

What is priming?

Priming is when the reaction to a stimulus is influenced by prior exposure to related stimuli (e.g., associating "table" with "chair").

What is subliminal perception? Does it work? When may subliminal cues be most effective?

Subliminal perception is sensing stimuli without conscious awareness. Evidence shows minimal actual influence on behavior. Cues may be most effective when consistent with existing motivations, not compelling against will.

What is the difference between automatic and controlled processing? What is an example of each? How does the Stroop Task show the difference between them?

Automatic processing: Fast, effortless, and often unconscious mental activity.

• Example: Reading familiar words or driving a familiar route.

Controlled processing: Slow, deliberate, and conscious mental effort.

• Example: Learning a new language or solving a complex math problem.

• Stroop Task: Shows the difference by asking people to name the ink color of a word that spells a different color (e.g., the word “RED” in blue ink). Automatic reading interferes, requiring controlled attention to focus on the ink color instead of the word.

What is altered consciousness?

Altered consciousness is any state of awareness that is different from normal waking consciousness. This can include sleep, dreaming, hypnosis, meditation, drug-induced states, or daydreaming, where perception, thinking, and awareness are changed or distorted.

What is the difference between concentrative and mindfulness meditation?

Concentrative meditation focuses on a single object; mindfulness meditation observes thoughts without judgment.

How may meditation affect cognitive processing and the immune system?

Meditation may improve focus and reduce stress, indirectly supporting immune function, but research validity is debated.

What is a flow experience?

A flow experience is a state of complete immersion and enjoyment in a task, leading to diminished self-awareness and time perception.

What is hypnosis? What is a posthypnotic suggestion? How effective are posthypnotic suggestions?

• Hypnosis: A state of focused attention, heightened suggestibility, and deep relaxation in which a person may follow directions more easily.

• Posthypnotic suggestion: A recommendation given during hypnosis that influences behavior after the session ends.

• Effectiveness: Can be helpful for pain relief, habit change, or stress reduction, but does not work on everyone and cannot make people act against their core values.

Can everyone be hypnotized? What are the qualities of people who can be hypnotized?

Not everyone can be hypnotized to the same extent. Openness to suggestion, vivid imagination, and focused attention are qualities of susceptible individuals.

What is the sociocognitive theory of hypnosis? What is the neodissociation theory of hypnosis? What evidence supports the neodissociation theory?

Sociocognitive theory: hypnotic behavior is role-play. Neodissociation theory: hypnosis is a dissociated state, with a "hidden observer" remaining aware. Evidence: hypnotized individuals reporting pain when specifically asked, even when consciously denying it.

What is hypnotic analgesia?

Hypnotic analgesia is the reduction of pain perception using hypnosis.

What is a circadian rhythm?

A circadian rhythm is the body’s natural 24-hour internal clock that regulates sleep-wake cycles, hormone release, body temperature, and other biological processes. It helps the body know when to sleep, eat, and be alert.

What are free-running cycles? What is entrainment?

Free-running cycles are natural sleep rhythms without external cues. Entrainment is synchronizing these cycles to environmental cues like light.

How do photosensitive ganglion cells tweak the circadian clock?

Specialized retinal photosensitive ganglion cells detect light, signaling the SCN to reset or adjust the circadian clock to external day-night cycles.

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and what does it do?

• Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): A tiny region in the hypothalamus that acts as the body’s master circadian clock, regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Signals: The SCN sends signals to:

1. Pineal gland → controls melatonin release to promote sleep.

2. Other brain regions (like hypothalamus and brainstem areas) → regulate alertness, body temperature, and hormone cycles.

• Effect: These signals help the brain and body maintain a 24-hour rhythm, keeping sleep, wakefulness, and other physiological processes in sync.

What is the role of the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus and what neurotransmitters does it release to promote sleep?

• Role: The VLPO, located in the hypothalamus, promotes sleep by inhibiting wake-promoting brain regions.

• Neurotransmitters: It releases GABA and galanin, which suppress arousal systems and help the brain transition into and maintain sleep.

What are beta waves? When do we see them? What are alpha waves and when do we see them?

Beta waves: alert, wakeful state. Alpha waves: slower waves, appear when awake and relaxed, eyes closed, preceding sleep.

In stage 1 of sleep what brain waves are shown? What are hypnagogic sensations?

Stage 1 shows theta waves. Hypnagogic sensations are vivid sensory experiences at sleep onset (e.g., falling).

In stage 2, what are sleep spindles and the K complex? What might these signals be doing?

Stage 2 has sleep spindles (rapid brain wave bursts) and K-complexes (large, slow waves). They are thought to suppress external stimuli and aid memory consolidation.

What brain waves are indicative of stages 3 and 4 of sleep?

Delta waves indicate stages 3 and 4 of sleep (deep sleep).

After stage 4, what happens?

The sleep cycle typically reverses, moving back through Stage 3, then Stage 2, before entering REM sleep.

Describe REM sleep and why it is often called paradoxical sleep.

REM sleep involves rapid eye movement, vivid dreaming, and active brain waves, yet the body muscles are largely paralyzed, making it paradoxical.

What is a sleep cycle?

A sleep cycle consists of various sleep stages, lasting about 90 minutes, repeating throughout the night.

What is the difference between REM dreams and non-REM dreams?

• REM dreams: Vivid, emotional, often story-like; occur during REM sleep when the brain is highly active.

• Non-REM dreams: Short, less vivid, more thought-like or fragmented; occur during deep non-REM sleep.

• Key difference: REM dreams are more complex and memorable, while non-REM dreams are usually simpler and harder to recall.

What happens in the brain when we dream?

• During REM sleep, the brain is highly active, especially in the visual cortex, limbic system (emotion), and association areas.

• The prefrontal cortex (logic and reasoning) is less active, which is why dreams can be illogical or bizarre.

• Hippocampal cells may replay memories to help consolidate learning, and the brain integrates emotions, experiences, and random neural activity to create dream narratives.

In Freud’s theory of dreams, what is the difference between manifest and latent content? Why did Freud believe dreams were important?

• Manifest content = the actual story or images of the dream (what you remember).

• Latent content = the hidden, unconscious meaning behind the dream.

• Freud believed dreams were important because they reveal unconscious desires, thoughts, and conflicts, acting as a “window to the unconscious mind.”

What is the activation-synthesis theory of dreams, and how does it differ from Freud’s theory?

• Activation-synthesis theory: Dreams happen when the brain’s neurons fire randomly during REM sleep, and the brain tries to make sense of this random activity by creating a story.

• Criticisms: It ignores emotions and real-life experiences that often appear in dreams, and some scientists say dreams are not completely random.

• Difference from Freud: Freud believed dreams have deep, symbolic meaning that reveals unconscious desires, while activation-synthesis says dreams have little or no hidden meaning—they’re just the brain’s attempt to organize random signals.

What is the evolved threat rehearsal theory of dreams?

The evolved threat-rehearsal theory suggests that dreams help us practice responding to dangerous or threatening situations. By simulating threats in dreams, the brain prepares us for real-life challenges, improving survival and problem-solving skills.

What do we mean when we say that REM sleep is important for the consolidation of learning? What do hippocampal cells do during REM?

REM sleep: contributes to learning consolidation.
Hippocampal cells: During REM, these cells “replay” experiences from the day, reinforcing learning and helping the brain integrate new information.

What happens when people are deprived of REM? What is REM rebound?

REM deprivation: increased daytime sleepiness, irritability, difficulty concentrating, and impaired memory
REM rebound: an increase in the amount and intensity of Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep that occurs after a period of REM sleep deprivation

What does deprivation of stages 3 and 4 of sleep do?

Deprivation of deep sleep (stages 3 and 4) likely hinders restorative functions, leading to fatigue and impaired cognition.

What is the restorative theory of sleep? What evidence supports this? What is the circadian rhythm theory of sleep?

Restorative theory: sleep repairs body/mind (supported by deep sleep functions). Circadian rhythm theory: sleep keeps animals inactive when activity is dangerous/inefficient.

What is insomnia? Why are sedatives not a good long-term sleep solution?

Insomnia is difficulty initiating/maintaining sleep. Sedatives aren't long-term due to dependence risk and diminishing effectiveness.

What is sleep apnea? What are ways to treat sleep apnea?

• Sleep apnea: A sleep disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, leading to poor sleep quality and low oxygen levels.

Treatment:

• Lifestyle changes: weight loss, avoiding alcohol or sedatives, sleeping on your side.

• CPAP machine: keeps airways open with continuous air pressure.

• Oral devices: reposition the jaw or tongue to keep the airway open.

• Surgery: in severe cases, to remove or reduce airway blockages.

What is somnambulism? When does it occur?

Somnambulism (sleepwalking) involves complex behaviors during NREM sleep, typically in deep sleep stages (3 and 4).

What is narcolepsy?

Narcolepsy is uncontrollable sleep attacks during wakefulness, often with cataplexy.

What is sleep paralysis?

Sleep paralysis is when you wake up or fall asleep and can’t move or speak because your body is still in REM sleep. It happens when the mind wakes up before the body leaves REM paralysis.

What are night terrors and how are they different from nightmares?

• Night terrors: Intense episodes of fear, screaming, or thrashing during deep non-REM sleep. The person often doesn’t remember the event afterward.

• Nightmares: Scary dreams that happen during REM sleep. The person usually wakes up and remembers the dream.

• Key difference: Night terrors occur in deep sleep and cause physical panic without dream recall, while nightmares occur in REM sleep and involve vivid, remembered dreams.

What is restless leg syndrome?

Restless leg syndrome is a neurological disorder that causes an uncontrollable urge to move the legs, usually accompanied by itching, tingling, or crawling sensations. Symptoms are often worse at night or when resting, which can interfere with sleep.

What is traumatic brain injury? What is a concussion? How might they have a cumulative effect?

TBI is impairment from head impacts. A concussion is a mild TBI from head movement. Multiple TBIs or concussions can have cumulative, long-term cognitive/neurological effects.

What is unresponsive wakefulness syndrome? What is a minimally conscious state?

• Unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS): A condition in which a person is awake (eyes open) but shows no signs of conscious awareness. Previously called a “vegetative state.”

• Minimally conscious state (MCS): A condition where a person shows limited but definite signs of awareness and can sometimes respond to stimuli, though inconsistently.

What is brain death?

Brain death is the irreversible loss of all brain function, including the brainstem.

What are psychoactive drugs?

Psychoactive drugs alter consciousness by interacting with neurotransmitter systems.

What are stimulants? Depressants? Narcotics? Hallucinogens?

• Stimulants: Drugs that increase activity in the nervous system, boosting alertness, energy, and attention (e.g., caffeine, amphetamines).

• Depressants: Drugs that slow down the nervous system, causing relaxation, drowsiness, or reduced anxiety (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines).

• Narcotics (opioids): Drugs that reduce pain and induce euphoria, often highly addictive (e.g., morphine, heroin).

• Hallucinogens: Drugs that alter perception, thoughts, and feelings, causing hallucinations or sensory distortions (e.g., LSD, psilocybin).