AP Biology Unit Flashcards

what are the 4 macromolecules?

carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids

what are carbohydrates composed of?

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

what is the monomer for carbohydrates?

monosaccharide

what are some examples of carbohydrates?

glucose, fructose, galactose

what are the 4 types of polysaccharides - name structure and purpose of each?

1. cellulose - found in plant cell walls, structural - beta glucose

2. chitin - found in fungi cell walls and exoskeleton of arthropods, structural - beta glucose

3. starch/amylose - found in plants, storage - alpha glucose

4. glycogen - found in animals, animal energy storage, fast energy - alpha glucose

what can’t human break down - alpha or beta glucose linkages?

beta linkages - such as chitin and cellulose

what is an alpha bond?

chemical bond joining two carbohydrates, forms straight bonds (structurally)

what is a beta glucose?

chemical bond joining two carbohydrates, forms brick like bonds (structurally)

what are proteins composed of?

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur

what is the monomer for a protein?

amino acid

what are parts of an amino acid?

amino, hydrogen, carboxyl, and R group (variable)

what bond is formed in proteins and what pattern should you look for?

peptide bond (between carboxyl and amino group), look for CCNCCN pattern

what are the levels of protein structure? - include bond and structure

1. primary - peptide bonds between amino acids, string of amino acids

2. secondary - hydrogen bonds, forms folds and spirals

3. tertiary - ANY (hydrogen, covalent, ionic…) between R-groups, forms 3D subunits

4. quaternary - ANY bonds between R groups of different 3D subunits, final structural protein

what are nucleic acids composed of?

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous

what is the monomer of a nucleic acids?

nucleotide

what are the main parts of a nucleotide?

phosphate, pentose, nitrogenous base

(RNA: AUGC, DNA: ATGC)

what is a purine?

double ring, A and G

what is a pyrimidine?

single ring, C and T

what bond is used to join DNA bases?

hydrogen bonds

what are the differences between DNA and RNA?

DNA: deoxyribose, double stranded, T

RNA: ribose, single stranded, U

what are the different bonds between bases?

A and T = 2H bonds, C and G = 3H bonds

what is the directionality of DNA which way is it read vs. copied)?

read 3’ to 5’, copied 5’ to 3’, runs in antiparallel strands

what are lipids composed of?

carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous (in phospholipids)

what is the monomer of a lipid?

no monomer, don’t have a repeating structure

what is polarity of each macromolecule?

carbohydrate: polar

protein: polar

nucleic acid: polar

lipid: nonpolar

what are the three types of lipids?

1. fats (triglycerides)

2. phospholipids

3. steroids/cholesterol

what is a triglyceride made of?

glycerol (3 carbon chain), and 3 fatty acids

what is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

saturated fatty acid: ALL single bonds, straight chain, solid at room temp

unsaturated fatty acid: At least one double bond, bent, liquid

what are the key parts of a phospholipid?

head: glycerol, hydrophilic, polar, attracted to water

tail: 2 fatty acid groups, hydrophobic, nonpolar, repelled by water

attached phosphate group: in place of 3rd fatty acid

what are steroids?

four-fused rings, intracellular recognition, hormones and messengers

what are covalent bonds?

bonds where electrons are shared

what are the two types of covalent bonds?

polar - electrons shared unequally (water)

nonpolar - electrons shared equally

what is the difference between a polar covalent bond and hydrogen bond in water molecules?

polar covalent bonds - between oxygen and hydrogen IN water molecule

hydrogen bonds - between oxygen and hydrogen BETWEEN water molecules

what is cohesion?

water molecules attracted to other WATER molecules

what is adhesion?

water molecules attracted to other POLAR substances

what is capillary action?

water movement due to adhesion, cohesion, and surface tension (ex. in plants from roots to leaves)

what is surface tension?

cohesion develops a “surface” based on the interaction of hydrogen bonds

what is dehydration synthesis?

joins molecules, water removed in process

what is hydrolysis?

breaking apart molecules, water being added

what makes water special (3 things)?

1. water is less dense when solid - hydrogen bonds inhibit compaction when atoms slow down, instead forms a spread out pattern

2. high heat capacity - water can absorb a lot of heat without changing temperature

3. universal solvent - water can dissolve more substances than any other liquid

what is the PH scale and what does it mean has numbers get higher or lower?

a 0-14 scale used to measure the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution, also known as “potential of hydrogen”

• high numbers (7+) - indicate a base, lower concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and higher concentration of hydroxyl ions (OH-)

• low numbers (7-) - indicate an acid, higher concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and lower concentration of hydroxyl ions (OH-)

• middle number (7) - neutral, equal concentration of both ions, ex. water

what is a prokaryotic cell?

no membrane bound organelles, no nucleus

ex. bacteria and archea

what are the advantages of prokaryotic cells?

1. fast response to environmental change

2. fast reproduction

what are eukaryotic cells?

membrane bound organelles, more complex, has nucleus, make up multi-cellular organisms

ex. plants, animals, fungi, protists

what are the advantages of eukaryotic cells?

1. specialized organelles make the cell more efficient

2. greater flexibility and adaptability due to their larger size and more complex structure

what is the nucleus structure and function?

structure: double membrane (nuclear envelope) with pores

function: stores DNA, synthesis of RNA, ribosome subunit assembly

what is the rough ER structure and function?

structure: membrane studded with ribosome attached to nuclear envelope

function: place where proteins are made

what is the smooth ER structure and function?

structure: folded, tube-like structure

functions: detoxification, synthesis lipids

what is the Golgi complex structure and function?

structure: membrane bound structure composed of flattened sacs

function: finishes and package proteins

what is the ribosome structure and function?

structure: rRNA and proteins, large and small subunits, can be bound or free in cytoplasm

function: protein synthesis

what is the mitochondria structure and function?

structure: double membrane (outside: smooth; inner: highly folded)

function: breakdown of food, creates ATP, cellular respiration (site of oxidative phosphorylation (cristae/inner membrane); site of krebs cycle (matrix))

what is chloroplast structure and function?

structure: only in plants, double outer membrane, thylakoid - individual disks, grana, fluid, stroma

function: builds glucose through photosynthesis (thylakoid: light reactions, stroma, calvin cycle)

what is the lysosome structure and function?

structure: membrane-enclosed sacs that contain hydrolytic enzymes

function: contain hydrolytic enzymes to digest food/damaged organelles

what is the vacuole structure and function?

structure: membrane bound sac

function: storage, water retention, cellular waste products

what are the differences between plant and animal cells?

plant: cell wall, chloroplasts for photosynthesis, large central vacuole

animal: no cell wall (only cell membrane), no chloroplasts, small and multiple vacuoles

what types of cells are more efficient in exchange of materials with environment?

smaller cells that have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio

what are the benefits of convolutions?

increase surface area for metabolic activity

what is the plasma membrane composed of?

phospholipids, membrane proteins, glycolipids/glycoproteins (cell communication), cholesterol (acts as a buffer)

what is simple diffusion?

passive transport, down concentration gradient, small non-polar molecules, no transport protein needed

ex. carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, steroids

what is facilitated diffusion?

passive transport, down concentration gradient, requires transport protein, can transport small charged molecules

how do channel and carrier proteins differ?

channel - allows to pass through without changing shape, act like a pore

carrier - molecule binds to transport protein and protein changes shape to let molecule through

what is active transport?

requires energy, against concentration gradient, requires transport protein, charged molecules

what is bulk transport?

the movement of large molecules, large quantities of smaller molecules, or even entire cells across the cell membrane using membrane-bound vesicles

what is endocytosis?

import of materials

what is exocytosis?

the release of large molecules, through the use of vesicles

what is a hypertonic solution?

HIGH solute concentration

LOW free water concentration

GAINS water from hypotonic solution

what is an isotonic solution?

EQUAL solute concentration

EQUAL free water concentration

EQUAL water movement in and out of solution

what is a hypotonic solution?

LOW solute concentration

HIGH free water concentration

LOSES water to hypertonic solution

what are aquaporins?

membrane proteins that large amounts of water pass through

what is free energy?

energy available to do work

what is an endergonic reaction?

energy has to enter, low free energy, gaining free energy, product as more energy than reactants, not spontaneous, positive delta G

ex. photosynthesis

what is an exergonic reaction?

energy is leaving, spontaneous, releases energy, negative delta G

ex. burning fuel, breaking down sugar, combustion

what are enzymes?

biological catalysts, speed up chemical reaction, reduces activation energy, enzymes are proteins, enzymes can be reused, don’t change on free energy

how does an enzymes work?

1. substrate enters active site of enzyme

2. enzyme/substrate complex forms

3. substrate converted to products

4. products leave active site of the enzymes

how to anabolic and catabolic reactions differ?

anabolic - forms bonds

catabolic - breaks bonds

what is competitive inhibition?

an inhibitor that binds to the active site

what is noncompetitive inhibition?

an inhibitor that binds to the allosteric site

what do enzyme activators do?

increase activity

what are cofactors and coenzymes and how do they differ?

enzymatic activators

cofactors - participate in the reaction

coenzymes - carry atoms or electrons to the reaction

in the water potential formula, what number do you use for i?

1 for sugar

2 for salt

in the water potential formula, what number is used for C?

intersection point on graph

what causes enzymes denaturation?

environmental temperatures, PH, salinity

what conditions affect enzymes?

1. ph

2. temperature

3. concentration of substrate

4. concentration of enzyme

what is the purpose of cellular respiration?

to make energy (ATP) for cells by breaking down glucose, turns food into usable power

what is glycolysis? (location, process, ins, outs)

location: cytosol/cytoplasm (in prokaryotes and eukaryotes)

process: breaks 6-carbon glucose into 2 3 carbon pyruvate (½ glucose)

ins: 2 ATP, glucose, 2 NAD+

outs: 4 ATP (net of 2), 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate

what the pyruvate oxidation? (location, process, ins, outs)

location: mitochondrial matrix

process: prepares pyruvate for the Krebs cycle by turning it into Acetyl-CoA

ins: 2 Pyruvate, 2 NAD+

outs: 2 Acetyl-CoA, 2 CO₂, 2 NADH

what is the krebs cycle/citric acid cycle? (location, process, ins, outs)

location: mitochondrial matrix - only eukaryotes

process: finished breaking down the sugar, makes energy carriers

ins: acetyl CoA, NAD+, FAD

outs: 4 CO², 6 NADH, 2 FADH², 2 ATP (this for TWICE around the cycle)

what is fermentation and why does it happen (ins, outs, process, location)?

happens: when no oxygen is available (anaerobic)

location: cytoplasm

process: lets glycolysis keep going without oxygen by recycling NAD+

ins: pyruvate, NADH

outs: lactic acid or alcohol, NAD+

what is oxidative phosphorylation? (location, process, ins, outs)

location: mitochondrial cristae, between inner and outer membrane

process: uses electrons from NADH/FADH₂ to power ATP production; oxygen is final electron acceptor and makes water

ins: NADH, FADH², O²

outs: NAD+ FAD++, ATP (28-34), H₂0

what is the purpose of photosynthesis and what are the two steps?

makes glucose (food) using sunlight, water, and CO₂, 2 steps: light reaction and calvin cycle

what is the light reaction? (location, process, ins, outs)

location: thylakoid membrane (in chloroplast)

process: uses sunlight to split water and make energy (ATP and NADPH)

ins: light energy, H₂O, NADP+, ADP

outs: O², NADPH (carries electrons), ATP

what is the calvin cycle? (location, process, ins, outs)

location: stroma (cytosol of chloroplasts)

process: uses energy from light reaction to build sugar from CO₂

ins: CO², ATP, NADPH

outs: G3P (1/2 sugar) - goes through twice to make glucose, ADP, NADP+

what is the acronym OILRIG mean?

Oxidation

Is

Losing

Reduction

Is

Gaining

what are stomata?

openings in the bottoms of leaves that are used for gas exchange

what is xylem?

carries water up the plant from roots to leaves

what is phloem?

carries sugars down the plant

what is the process of plant transpiration?

the process where plants release water vapor into the atmosphere, primarily through tiny pores called stomata on their leaves

hot/windy: plants transpire at a higher rate

humid: plants transpire at a lower rate

on a graph how can you tell what light a plant is using vs. what light it is reflecting?

using: highest values on the graph (peaks)

reflecting: lowest value on graph (valleys)

what are the steps of cellular communication?

1. reception - ligand (signaling molecule) binds to receptor, causes confirmation shape change

2. transduction - the activated receptor initiates molecular events involving secondary messengers (like cAMP or calcium) and relay molecules (kinase) to transmit signal throughout the cell

3. response - cell growth, secretion of molecules, gene expression, alter cell function/phenotype, apoptosis

what are some different pathways to know?

1. G-protein pathway - molecular switches that relay signals from cell surface receptors, called G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), to intracellular signaling pathways

2. RTK - or Receptor Tyrosine Kinase pathways, signaling cascades initiated by cell surface receptors that have tyrosine kinase activity, activates multiple responses for an amplified response

3. ion channels - ligand binds to channel and channel door is open allowing ions to flow, have a fast response such as neurons in nervous system