Period 8 APUSH

Things I think I need to know for APUSH Period 7

Define the Cold War

Power struggle between USA & USSR
Ideological, economic, & military in nature

Define authoritarian

Method of government USSR used (aside from communism)
Using authority to require strict obedience
Lack of personal freedoms/rights
Strong military power

Define democracy

Government based on free will/consent of the people
Free & fair elections

Define communism

Property is publicly owned
Strong economic controls

Define capitalism

Private ownership & competition
Free enterprise with regulations

How would the USA limit Soviet influence/power?

Collective security, Internation aid, & Economic institutions

Examples of collective security

United Nations: Already existed at the time of the Cold War; allowed for collective action instead of unilateral
Iron Curtain Speech ~ 1946: Speech by PM of Britain (Winston Churchill); defined the divide between eastern & western Europe
NATO ~ 1949: US & Great Britain (plus allies) can prevent any communist threat to a democratic nation

Examples of internation aid

Marshall Plan ~ 1948: Provide financial support to democratic nations; aid for rebuilding economies
The Truman Doctrine ~ 1947: Prevent communism by providing economic and military support for Turkey & Greece; start of the containment idea for communism

Examples of economic institutions

Bretton Woods Conference ~ 1944: UN’s monetary & financial conference to create a new international monetary system for economic stability; road to free trade & globalization
The World Bank: Promote economic growth in war-ravaged & underdeveloped areas
The International Monetary Fund: Regulate currency exchange rates; encourage world trade

USA domestic implications ~ Military-wise

Interstate highway system: Matter of national security
NASA: Space race; nuclear arms race

USA domestic implications ~ Economic-wise

GI Bill: Investment in veterans; good education; good housing; monthly allowance

USA domestic implications ~ Politics-wise

The second Red Scare/McCarthyism
Civil Rights movements

Berlin Blockade & Airlift ~ 1948-1949

• Soviet Action ~ June 24, 1948: USSR blocked all rail, road, and canal access to West Berlin from West Germany
  Goals: Force the Western Allies to abandon West Berlin or negotiate under Soviet term

• Allied Response: Western Allies (led by the USA & Britain) organized a massive airlift to supply West Berlin with food, fuel, and other essentials

• Operation Vittles: USA codename for the airlift; British counterpart called Operation Plainfare

• End of Blockade ~ May 12, 1949: Soviets lifted the blockade recognizing its failure to achieve political goals

• Creation of Two Germanys: West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) ~ May 1949; East Germany (German Democratic Republic) ~ October 1949

Suez Canal Crisis ~ 1956

• Suez Canal Importance: A vital waterway connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea; crucial for global trade, especially for oil shipments from the Middle East to Europe

• July 1956: Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal to fund the Aswan Dam after the U.S. and Britain withdrew financial support

• Britain, France, and Israel conspired to regain control of the canal and weaken Nasser’s position

• October 29, 1956: Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula, advancing toward the canal

• Under pressure from the U.S. and United Nations, Britain, France, and Israel withdrew their forces by early 1957

• The UN deployed a peacekeeping force to the region, marking the first large-scale UN peacekeeping mission.

Sputnik ~ 1957

• The United States and Soviet Union were locked in a technological and ideological competition, with space exploration emerging as a key battleground

• The Soviet Union had already demonstrated technological prowess with its ballistic missile programs, alarming U.S. leaders

• On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, into orbit

• The satellite weighed about 184 pounds and orbited Earth every 96 minutes, emitting radio pulses

• On November 3, 1957, the USSR launched Sputnik 2, which carried a dog named Laika, the first living being in space

• The launch of Sputnik sparked fear in the U.S., as it demonstrated Soviet capabilities in space and missile technology

• Concerns grew over the potential for Soviet ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missiles) to deliver nuclear weapons

• The U.S. worried it was falling behind in the arms race and technological innovation

• In response, the U.S. established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958 to accelerate space exploration efforts

Space race/NASA ~ 1958

• On July 29, 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, creating NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

• NASA officially began operations on October 1, 1958

Key Early NASA Programs

• Project Mercury (1958–1963):

  • Goal: To send the first American astronauts into space and ensure their safe return

  • Achievements: Astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space (1961), and John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth (1962)

• President John F. Kennedy set a bold goal in 1961: landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade

• The National Defense Education Act (1958) promoted STEM education to ensure the U.S. had the talent to compete in science and technology

U-2 Spy Planes Incident ~ 1960

• The U-2 reconnaissance plane, operated by the CIA, was developed to fly at high altitudes beyond the reach of Soviet air defenses, gathering intelligence on military installations and nuclear programs

• President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized U-2 missions to monitor Soviet activities and maintain an advantage in the arms race

• On May 1, 1960, a U-2 plane piloted by Francis Gary Powers was shot down by a Soviet surface-to-air missile while flying over Soviet territory near Sverdlovsk (modern-day Yekaterinburg)

• The U.S. initially claimed the plane was a weather research aircraft that had strayed off course

• The Soviets, however, revealed they had captured Powers and his spy equipment, exposing the American lie

• Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev used the incident to publicly denounce the U.S., accusing it of violating Soviet airspace and undermining peace efforts

Cuban Revolution ~ 1959

• Cuba was governed by President Fulgencio Batista, a military dictator whose regime was marked by corruption, repression, and close ties to American businesses

• Fidel Castro, along with Che Guevara and other revolutionaries, launched the Cuban Revolution with the aim of overthrowing Batista and establishing a new government

• On January 1, 1959, Batista fled Cuba, and Castro’s forces entered Havana, marking the end of the revolution

• Castro established a one-party socialist state, aligning Cuba with the Soviet Union during the Cold War

• U.S.-owned businesses, including sugar plantations and utilities, were nationalized, leading to tension with the United States

Bay of Pigs ~ 1961

• The CIA trained approximately 1,400 Cuban exiles for the operation, assuming local Cubans would rise against Castro during the invasion

• Airstrikes failed to destroy Castro’s air force completely.

• Within three days, Castro’s forces defeated the invaders, capturing or killing most of them

• The failed invasion embarrassed the Kennedy administration and highlighted flaws in U.S. intelligence and planning

• The invasion pushed Cuba closer to the Soviet Union, setting the stage for the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

Cuban Missle Crisis ~ 1962

• Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev sought to counter U.S. nuclear superiority and protect Cuba by secretly deploying nuclear missiles on the island, just 90 miles from U.S. shores

• The U.S. had installed Jupiter missiles in Turkey, threatening the Soviet Union, which Khrushchev saw as a parallel threat

• On October 14, 1962, U.S. reconnaissance planes photographed Soviet missile sites under construction in Cuba

• President John F. Kennedy announced the discovery on October 22 and imposed a naval "quarantine" (blockade) on Cuba to prevent further Soviet shipments of military equipment

• Kennedy demanded the immediate removal of the missiles and declared that any attack from Cuba would result in a full-scale U.S. retaliation against the Soviet Union

• After tense negotiations, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba on October 28 in exchange for U.S. public assurances not to invade Cuba

• Both leaders emerged with mixed reputations: Kennedy was lauded for his firm stance, while Khrushchev faced criticism at home for appearing to back down

George Kennan ~ 1974

• By 1974, Kennan had become increasingly critical of U.S. foreign policy, particularly its overreach and the militarization of containment

• Kennan supported détente, the easing of tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union during the 1970s, as exemplified by arms control agreements like SALT I (1972)

Fall of China ~ 1949

• Fought between the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT), led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communist Party of China (CPC), led by Mao Zedong, from the late 1920s to 1949

• The U.S. supported the Nationalists with financial aid and military supplies, while the Soviet Union provided limited support to the Communists

• By 1949, Mao's forces had gained control of mainland China, defeating the Nationalists due to superior organization, popular support among peasants, and strategic military victories

• Chiang Kai-shek and the KMT fled to the island of Taiwan, where they established a separate government claiming to represent all of China

• It shaped U.S.-China relations for decades, as the U.S. refused to recognize the PRC and instead supported Taiwan as the legitimate government of China until 1979

National Security Council (NSC)-68 ~ 1950

• The NSC was a U.S. government body responsible for advising the president on matters of national security

• In 1950, the NSC began reviewing U.S. security strategy in response to growing Soviet power

• NSC-68 was a top-secret policy paper presented to President Harry S. Truman in April 1950. It outlined a new U.S. strategy for combating the Soviet threat during the Cold War

  • It called for a massive buildup of U.S. military forces and a more aggressive stance toward containing communism globally

• NSC-68 advocated for a dramatic increase in U.S. defense spending, proposing a nearly fourfold increase in military budgets, reaching over $50 billion annually

• This expansion was to include the development of a larger nuclear arsenal and conventional forces

• The policy emphasized the need to contain Soviet expansion through a global strategy, including the use of military and economic support for anti-communist allies and the creation of strong military alliances like NATO

• The recommendations of NSC-68 were quickly adopted, especially after the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, which confirmed fears about the global spread of communism

• NSC-68 played a crucial role in accelerating the arms race, especially in nuclear weapons development, with the U.S. focusing on maintaining nuclear superiority over the Soviet Union

Eisenhower Doctrine ~ 1957

• Announced by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on January 5, 1957, the doctrine was designed to provide U.S. military and economic assistance to Middle Eastern countries resisting communist aggression

• The doctrine promised U.S. military aid and intervention to countries threatened by communist subversion or aggression, particularly by the Soviet Union or communist-backed forces

• The doctrine was framed as a response to the growing Soviet influence in the Middle East, especially after the Soviet Union gained a foothold in Egypt under Nasser

Korean War ~ 1950–1953

• After Japan’s defeat in World War II, Korea was divided along the 38th parallel, with the Soviet Union controlling the north and the United States occupying the south

• This division laid the groundwork for the establishment of two separate Korean states: the communist North (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) under Kim Il-sung, and the capitalist South (Republic of Korea) under Syngman Rhee

• On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces, under Kim Il-sung, crossed the 38th parallel and launched an invasion of South Korea, rapidly advancing toward the capital, Seoul

• The United States, under President Harry S. Truman, viewed the invasion as a test of the policy of containment and a direct threat of communist expansion

• By August 1950, North Korean forces had pushed South Korean and U.N. forces to the southeastern corner of the Korean Peninsula, establishing a defensive perimeter around the port city of Pusan

• General Douglas MacArthur, commander of U.N. forces, executed a successful amphibious landing at Inchon in September 1950, turning the tide of the war. The landing forced the North Koreans to retreat and allowed U.N. forces to recapture Seoul

• In November 1950, as U.N. forces approached the Yalu River (bordering China), China entered the war to support North Korea. Chinese forces launched a counteroffensive that pushed U.N. forces back and retook Seoul

• By 1951, the war settled into a stalemate with frontlines near the 38th parallel. Both sides engaged in trench warfare, leading to high casualties and little territorial change

• Negotiations for an armistice began in July 1951, but progress was slow due to disputes over the exchange of prisoners and the exact borders

• On July 27, 1953, an armistice was signed, effectively ending the fighting. The Korean Peninsula remained divided along the 38th parallel, and a demilitarized zone (DMZ) was established between North and South Korea

• The war intensified Cold War tensions, reinforcing the U.S. commitment to containing communism in Asia and leading to increased U.S. military presence in the Pacific region

• The Korean War set a precedent for U.S. intervention in conflicts around the world during the Cold War. It led to the establishment of military alliances like SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) and reinforced the policy of containment

SALT I ~ 1972

• President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger, sought to stabilize U.S.-Soviet relations and curb the arms race through diplomacy

• The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) were two rounds of negotiations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. SALT I refers to the first round, which resulted in agreements signed in May 1972 to limit the number of nuclear weapons held by both superpowers

• The U.S. and the USSR agreed to limit the number of nuclear-armed ICBMs and SLBMs

• Both countries also agreed to restrict the construction of new missile launchers

• Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty:

  • The ABM Treaty limited each country to two sites for missile defense systems, later reduced to one site per country

Truman Doctrine ~ 1947

• On March 12, 1947, President Harry S. Truman delivered a speech to Congress requesting U.S. aid for Greece and Turkey, two countries under threat of communist takeover

• Truman explicitly stated that the U.S. would support free peoples who were "resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures," effectively initiating a policy of containment to prevent the spread of communism

• The immediate goal of the Truman Doctrine was to provide U.S. assistance to Greece, which was in the midst of a civil war between communist insurgents and the royalist government, and Turkey, which faced Soviet pressure on its borders

• The U.S. provided $400 million in aid to these countries, including economic assistance and military supplies to help them resist communist influence

• Some critics of the Truman Doctrine argued that the U.S. was overstepping its boundaries and interfering in the internal affairs of other nations, particularly in situations where communism was seen as a response to local conditions or foreign exploitation

Truman's Foreign Policy

• Differences between Soviet and American goals became clearer after the war

• Truman Doctrine and Containment Policy to prevent spread of communism

• Marshall Plan - sent $12 billion to Europe to help rebuild its economy and promote economic growth

• Formed NATO with Canada and Western European countries in 1949

McCarthyism

anticommunism

Square Deal

Theodore Roosevelt promised to regulate business and restore competition

First New Deal

Franklin Roosevelt focused on immediate public relief and recovery of banks

Second New Deal

Franklin Roosevelt addressed shortcomings of the First New Deal and responded to changing political climate

Fair Deal

Harry Truman extended New Deal vision and provided provisions for WWII veteran reintegration into society (e.g. G.I. Bill)

Taft-Hartley Act

restricts labor rights, gives government power to intervene in strikes

G.I. Bill of Rights:

• Serviceman's Readjustment Act enacted in 1944

• Provided allowance for educational and living expenses for returning soldiers and veterans

• Helped many Americans achieve the American dream

• Stimulated postwar economic growth by providing low-cost loans for homes, farms, or small businesses

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

separate educational facilities are inherently unequal

Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960

strengthening voting rights and punishments for crimes against Blacks

Domino Theory

• Spread of communism had to be checked in Southeast Asia

• South Vietnam falling to communism would lead to quick fall of surrounding nations

"Camelot" era

1960s started with hope and excitement

New Frontier

conquer poverty, racism, and other contemporary issues

Kennedy's Presidency

• Began with a promise of conquering a New Frontier

• Pushed through legislation to improve the country's welfare

• Increased unemployment benefits

• Expanded Social Security

• Raised minimum wage

• Aided distressed farmers

Equal Pay Act (1963)

• equal pay for equal work

• Employers still found ways to bypass the law

Civil Rights Act of 1964

• Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, or gender

• Most comprehensive piece of civil rights legislation in U.S. history

• Prohibited discrimination in employment and public facilities

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

• Respectful and inclusive workplaces with equal employment opportunity for all

• Prevent and remedy unlawful employment discrimination and advance equal opportunity for all in the workplace

• Respectful and inclusive workplaces with equal employment opportunity for all

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Cracked down on states denying Black people the right to vote

Economic Opportunity Act

Appropriated nearly $1 billion for poverty relief

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

• Ratified on January 23, 1964

• Banned the use of the poll tax in all election

The Beat Movement

started in the 1950s and challenged conservatism with works promoting bohemian lifestyles, drug use and non-traditional art

The Free Speech Movement

was formed at the University of California, Berkeley in 1964

The New Left groups

male-dominated and insensitive to women's rights

National Organization for Women (NOW)

formed in 1966 to fight for legislative changes, including the Equal Rights Amendment

Roe v. Wade (1973)

enabled women to obtain abortions in all 50 states within the first trimester

Counterculture

hippies included long hair, tie-dyed shirts, ripped jeans, drug use, communal living, and "free love"

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

• 1970

• environmental concerns

Period of stagflation (recession-inflation)

• Nixon tried to combat with interventionist measures (price-and-wage freeze, increased federal spending)

• Efforts failed to produce intended results