AP Research Test 1

Theme Identification

identify and clearly articulate the themes and underlying patterns in your data set, draw meaning from data, develop narrative

Code Categorization

review everything you've coded, develop logical categories for all of the codes

Structural Coding

labeling specific structural attributes of the data, who, what, where, how; helps navigate and access sections of data in a large set

Descriptive Coding

single word that encapsulates a general idea/concept/event; useful for non-textual data (images)

In Vivo Coding

exact quotes or words from the data/participants as the actual codes/labels; helpful with different languages/cultures when its hard to infer meaning due to linguistic differences

Line by Line Coding

digging deeper, refining your codes and coding each line, code expansion

Initial Coding

reading through your data to get familiar with it, identify codes in deductive, and start coding

Inductive Coding

involves developing a set of codes based on a review of the data set; useful when researching novel, underresearched topics

Deductive Coding

involves applying a predetermined set of codes to a data set

Coding

the process of creating and assigning codes to categorize data extracts

Code

a label that describes a piece of content

Sufficient Cause

if that factor is present, the outcome will occur, but it can also occur under other conditions

Necessary Cause

the variable or factor must be present for the outcome to occur, but the factor alone is not enough to produce the outcome, other conditions are needed

Process Tracing

largely used in case studies, exploring how and why certain outcomes occur, evaluate evidence to determine causal mechanisms that produce particular results

Latent

hidden/symbolic

Manifest

obvious

Conversational Analysis

focuses on interpreting natural conversations with variation and reasons for variation

Discourse Analysis

focuses on interpretations and meaning found in communication, words must be assessed for deeper meaning, critically analyze texts for class, gender, wealth, culture, power, etc., context of time and space

Sorting

sort memos so you can ultimately develop your theory

Selective Coding

identify core category, fundamental phenomenon represented by data, how it interacts with other categories/subcategories, develop narrative of the process of how all the categories connect, variable/process/category/concept that explains the topic you're interested in

Axial or Theoretical Coding

start considering relationships between codes through categories, which codes occur at the same time, sequentially, other correlational factors, repetition, emphasis, overlap, causal relationships, processes, context, develop meaning, compare categories, create subcategories, find outliers

Open Coding

everything you can think of as coding, might not have a preset of codes, identify all possible concepts or interpretations, describing data, use memos

Credentializing

documenting expertise

Qualitative Research

- typically focus on phenomena that are occurring or have previously occurred in natural settings
- capturing and studying the complexity of those phenomena

Mixed-Method Design

combining qualitative and quantitative methods

Advantages of Qualitative Approuch

- exploration: gain insights on previously little-studied topics
- multifaceted description: reveal the complex, multilayered nature of situations, people, relationships, etc.
- verification: test validity of claims or theories in a real-world context
- theory development
- problem identification
- evaluation: judge the effectiveness of policies/innovations

Exploration

They can help you gain initial insights into what has previously been a little-studied topic or phenomenon

Multifactored Description

They can reveal the complex, possibly multilayered nature of certain situations, settings, processes, relationships, systems, or people.

Verification

They allow you to test the validity of certain assumptions, claims, theories, or generalizations within real-world contexts.

Theory Development

They can enable you to develop new concepts or theoretical perspectives related to a phenomenon.

Problem Identification

They can help you uncover key problems, obstacles, or enigmas that exist within the phenomenon.

Evaluation

They provide a means through which you can judge the effectiveness of particular policies, practices, or innovations

Case Study

also known as idiographic research, a particular person , program, or event is studied in depth for a defined period of time; its unique and exceptional qualities can promote understanding or inform practice for a similar occasion; suitable for learning more about a little known or poorly understood situation, how an individual or program changes over time; provides preliminary support for tentative explanations regarding the phenomenon studied

Idiographic Research

Another term for Case Study

Multiple/Collective Case Study

researchers study two or more cases, often cases that are either similar or different in certain key ways, to make comparisons, build theory, or propose generalizations

Ethnography

a researcher examines an entire group, a group that shares a common culture; studies the group in its natural setting for a long period of time, focuses on the behavior of the people to identify cultural norms, beliefs, practices, social structures, and other patterns; useful for understanding the complexities of a particular sociocultural group

Implicit Patterns

beliefs and assumptions that have such a below-the-surface, taken for granted quality that even the group members aren't consciously aware of them

Sine Qua Non

the essence (ex. site based field work is the essence of an ethnography)

Gatekeeper

a person who can smooth the way for the researchers entrance into the situation (ex. tribal chief, principal/teacher, program director)

Informed Consent

human participants can enter research freely (voluntarily) with full information about what it means for them to take part, and that they give consent before they enter the research

Key Informants

Those who can provide information and insights relevant to their research question and can facilitate contacts with other helpful individuals.

Primary Informants

also known as key informants, provide information and insights relevant to their research question and can facilitate contacts with other helpful individuals

Participant Observation

becoming immersed in the daily life of the people of a group/culture

Autoethnography

researchers conduct research on their own perspectives, beliefs, experiences, and practices

In Situ Field Jottings

field notes that focus on describing and detailing behaviours, interactions, and activities within the setting, might include diagrams, maps, and other graphics, notes created while actively immersed in the field

Phenomenological Study

a study that attempts to understand people's perceptions and perspectives related to a particular situation, what is it like to experience something

Phenomenology

refers to a person’s perception of the meaning of an event, as opposed to the event as it exists external to the person

Bracketing or Epoché

phenomenological researchers attempt to suspend any preconceived notions or personal experiences that may unduly influence what they hear participants say

Suspension

Sometimes called Bracketing or Epoché

Grounded Theory Study

a study that begins with data and uses it to develop a grand theory that might be generalized to other settings, groups, and processes; theory that emerges from study is derived from and rooted in data collected in the field rather than from the research literature; helpful when current theories about a phenomenon are either inadequate or nonexistent; focuses on a process related to a particular topic (including people's actions and interactions)

Categories

used in grounded theory data analysis, helps the researcher classify the data and develop theory

Saturating

learning as much as you can about a category

Deviant Cases

disconfirming evidence

Conceptual Density

the theory that emerges includes numerous concepts and interrelationships among those concepts

Narrative Inquiry

method for studying complex, multifaceted phenomena by focusing on the recollections and stories of individuals who have had experiences related to these phenomena; comprised of concepts of interaction, continuity, and situation that acknowledges the ways in which personal and social experiences interact with one another and are located within particular places and situations

Restorying

process of narrative analysis, researchers gather various narratives, field texts, and other data sources, analyzing them for key themes and elements, and then reordering them, often chronologically, to craft rich narratives and stories that provide a better understanding of the setting, context, time period, or sequence of events

Content Analysis

a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular body of material for the purpose of identifying patters, themes, or biases

Purpose of Case Study

To understand one person or situation (or perhaps a very small number) in great depth

Purpose of Ethnography

To understand how behaviors reflect the culture of a group

Purpose of Phenomelogical Study

To understand an experience from the participants’ points of view

Purpose of Grounded Theory Study

To derive a theory from data collected in a natural setting

Purpose of Narrative Inquiry

To explore rich experiences and stories of individuals

Purpose of Content Analysis

To identify the specific characteristics of a body of material

Focus of Case Study

One case or a few cases within its/their natural setting

Focus of Ethnography

A specific field site in which a group of people share a common culture

Focus of Phenomelogical Study

A particular phenomenon as it is typically lived and perceived by human beings

Focus of Grounded Theory Study

A process, including human actions and interactions and how they result from and influence one another

Focus of Narrative Inquiry

A set of experiences shared by a few or more individuals across time periods and context

Focus of Content Analysis

Any verbal, visual, or behavioral form of communication

Data Collection of Case Study

● Observations

● Interviews

● Appropriate written documents and/or audiovisual material

Data Collection of Ethnography

● Participant observation

● Structured or unstructured interviews with “informants”

● Artifact/document collection

Data Collection of Phenomelogical Study

● In-depth, unstructured interviews

● Purposeful sampling of 5–25 individuals

Data Collection of Grounded Theory Study

● Interviews

● Any other relevant data sources

Data Collection of Narrative Inquiry

● In-depth unstructured and semistructured interviews

● Autobiographical writings, poetry, and other narrative documents

● Photographs and other visual materials

Data Collection of Content Analysis

● Identification and possible sampling of the specific material to be analyzed

● Coding of the material in terms of predetermined and precisely defined characteristics

Data Analysis of Case Study

● Categorization and interpretation of data in terms of common themes

● Synthesis into an overall portrait of the case(s)

Data Analysis of Ethnography

● Identification of significant phenomena and underlying structures and beliefs

● Organization of data into a logical whole (e.g., chronology, typical day)

Data Analysis of Phenomelogical Study

● Search for meaningful concepts that reflect various aspects of the experience

● Integration of those concepts into a seemingly typical experience

Data Analysis of Grounded Theory Study

● Prescribed and systematic method of coding the data into categories and identifying interrelationships

● Continual interweaving of data collection and data analysis

● Construction of a theory from the categories and interrelationships

Data Analysis of Narrative Inquiry

● Identification of narrative themes, threads, and tensions

● Reordering of narratives into coherent chronological or thematic story

Data Analysis of Content Analysis

● Tabulation of the frequency of each characteristic

● Descriptive or inferential statistical analyses as needed to answer the research question

Reflective Memos

address a researcher's background characteristics and experiences, past and current social roles, and personal biases as these relate to the participants, setting, and/or research topic

Methodological Memos

help researchers keep track of breakthroughs related to certain methodological challenges or dilemmas

Analytical Memos

discussions of emerging themes in people's actions or statements, initial hunches or intuitions that a researcher should pursue through further observations or interview questions

Validity and Reliability

inappropriate concepts for evaluating the rigor or qualitative research studies

Credibility and Transferability

embraced criteria for judging whether the results from a study are plausible and believable from participants perspectives and if the findings can be applied to other settings, account for the ever changing nature of qualitative data

Reflexivity

actively try to identify personal, social, political, or philosophical biases that are likely to affect their ability to collect and interpret data

Triangulation

collect multiple forms of data related to the same research question, with the goal of finding consistencies or inconsistencies among the data

Member Checking and Audit Trails

addition of procedures and measures to serve as a “checks and balances system”

Focus Group

researchers gather several people to discuss a particular issue for 1 to 2 hours, a moderator introduces the issues to be discussed, fosters debate and discussion on pertinent issues, makes sure no one dominates the discussion, and keeps people focused on the topic (homogenous or heterogenous)

Purposefulness

The research question drives the methods used to collect and analyze data, rather than the other way around.

Explicitness of Assumptions and Biases

The researcher identifies and communicates any assumptions, beliefs, values, and biases that may influence data collection and interpretation

Rigor

The researcher uses rigorous, precise, and thorough methods to collect, record, and analyze data. The researcher also takes steps to remain as objective as possible throughout the project.

Open-mindedness

The researcher shows a willingness to modify hypotheses and interpretations when newly acquired data conflict with previously collected data.

Completeness

The researcher depicts the object of study in all of its complexity. The researcher spends sufficient time in the field to understand all nuances of a phenomenon; describes the physical setting, behaviors, and perceptions of participants; and ultimately gives readers an in-depth, multifaceted picture of the phenomenon (i.e., thick description).

Coherence

Persuasiveness

The researcher presents logical arguments, and the weight of the evidence suggests one interpretation to the exclusion of others.

Consensus

Other individuals, including the participants in the study and other scholars in the discipline, agree with the researcher’s interpretations and explanations.

Usefulness

The project yields conclusions that promote better understanding of the phenomenon, enable more accurate predictions about future events, or lead to interventions that enhance the quality of life.

Right to Privacy

any data collected should not be traceable back to particular individuals