Unit 3B Test

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development throughout the lifespan.

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time.teratogens

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and distinct facial features.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing.

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

Grasp

When an object is placed in an infants palm or fingers, they automatically close their fingers around it

Babinski

If you stroke the sole of an infants foot, they fan out their toes and curl them back in

Moro

When a baby is startled they respond by spreading out their arm and les and curl them back into their body’s center.

Fine motor skills

coordination of small actions

Gross motor skills

coordination of larger movements

Neural Pruning

This is when the brain eliminates unnecessary synaptic connections focusing on strengthening the essential ones.

Prefrontal cortex development

This area of the brain undergoes extensive changes, allowing teens to enhance their abilities and planning, impulse control, and consider the consequences of their actions.

Myelination

Increase during adolescence, and it improves the efficiency of neural signaling, enhancing the speed at which information travel within the brain.

Emotional centers

Teens often experience heightened emotional responses due to the amygdala’s increased sensitivity.

Reward Pathways

It changes during puberty and can lead to increased sensitivity to reward and social stimuli, contributing to adolescences risk taking behavior and sensation seeking tendancies

sex

the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex.

gender

the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex.

intersex

possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing.

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in females and males. Females typically have two, and males typically have one. The sex chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. Males and females have it, but the additional amount in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty.

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males.

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

spermarche

the first ejaculation.

menarche

the first menstrual period.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women.

sexual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault.

gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

androgyny

blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics.

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-assigned sex.

sexuality

our thoughts, feelings, and actions related to our physical attraction to another.

asexual

having no sexual attraction toward others.

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

sexual orientation

a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

accommodation

in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events.

formal operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

scaffold

in Vygotsky’s theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking.

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states — about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

language

our agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

universal grammar

humans’ innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern grammar in all languages.

babbling stage

the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

two-word stage

the stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences.

telegraphic speech

the early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram —“go car”— using mostly nouns and verbs.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).

Broca’s area

a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke’s area

a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression.

linguistic determinism

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

linguistic relativism

the idea that language influences the way we think.

ecological systems theory

a theory of the social environment’s influence on human development, using five nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences.

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

attachment

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation.

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed.

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return.

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display a clinging, anxious attachment; an avoidant attachment that resists closeness; or a disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior when separated from or reunited with caregivers.

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

intimacy

in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood.

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.