Psychology Exam 1 - Chapters 1-4

Wilhelm Wundt

Father of psychology

First psych lab for study in 1879

German (University of Leipzig)

Edward Titchener

Structuralism

William James

Father of American psychology and functionalism

John B. Watson

Behaviorism

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalysis

5 goals of psychology

Describe what happens

Understand and explain

Predict what will happen

Influence behavior

Improve the quality of life

What psychologists do

Psychology is an academic, non-medical discipline that includes many branches and specialities

What psychologists do (what areas they are in)

Teaching and research

Service providers to individuals

Service providers to organizations

What psychologists do (education requirements)

Education requirements can vary, but generally involve study beyond the bachelor’s degree

Functionalism

What the mind does

Structuralism

How mind is structured

Behaviorism

A field of psychology that concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not mental processes

Psycholanalysis

Our behavior is largely influenced by our unconscious wishes, thoughts, desires, especially sex and aggression

Inductive reasoning

Drawing general conclusions from specific observations

Deductive reasoning

Starts with general principles that are then applied to a specific instance

The scientific method (what is it)

A systematic approach used by scientists to investigate and understand the natural world.

The scientific method (why do we use it)

It provides a structured approach for conducting experiments, making observations, and drawing conclusions based on evidence. By following this method, scientists can ensure objectivity, reproducibility, and reliability in their research.

Goals of the scientific method

Describe- state what happens

Explain- Why does this event occur?

Predict- hypothesis

Improve

Hypothesis

A logical idea that can be tested

Theory

Conclusions drawn from closely related phenomena or multiple observations

Falsifiable

A theory that could possibly be proven wrong by imagining evidence that would contradict it

Parsimonious

Scientists prefer the theory that explains the results using assumptions that are the simplest, fewest, and most consistent with other established theories

Operational definitions

Specifies the operations or procedures used to produce or measure something

Population

All the people you want to make conclusions about

Sample

A subset of the population for your study

Convenience sample

A sample that is easy to get

Representative sample

A sample that closely resembles the population of which you are studying

Naturalistic observations

Careful monitoring and examination of what people and animals do under more or less natural circumstances

Case history

A thorough observation and description of a single individual, appropriate only when done for an unusual condition or circumstance

Surveys

A study of the prevalence of certain beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors, based on people’s responses to specific questions

Problems with survey research

Problems with obtaining a representative sample

Competence or honesty of those who respond

The wording of the questions

Correlational studies

A measure of the relationship between 2 variables with are both outside of the investigator’s control

Correlational coefficient ( r )

The mathematical estimate of the strength and direction of a correlation

Positive correlation

As one variable increases, so does the other

Negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases

Zero or near zero correlation

The variables have no relationship; changes in one are not related to any type of change in the other

Experiment

A study in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable (independent) while measuring at least one variable (dependent)

Independent variable

The item that the experiment changes or controls

The “cause”

Dependent variable

The item that an experimenter measures to determine how it was affected

The “effect”

Experimental group

Receives the IV

Control group

Does not receive the IV

Things that can go wrong during experiments

Demand characteristics

Placebo effects

Experimenter bias

Selective attrition

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that extend from the cell body of a neuron. They receive incoming signals from other neurons and transmit them to the cell body. Dendrites play a crucial role in the process of neural communication and information processing in the brain.

Cell body

Also known as the soma, is the main part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles. It is responsible for maintaining the overall functioning of the neuron.

Axon

A long, slender projection of a nerve cell (neuron) that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body. It is responsible for transmitting information to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Myelin Sheath

A protective covering that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers in the nervous system. It is made up of specialized cells called oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. The myelin sheath helps to increase the speed and efficiency of nerve impulse transmission.

Terminal branches of axon

Also known as axon terminals or synaptic terminals, are specialized structures at the end of the axon that transmit signals to other neurons or target cells. They contain synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters, which are released into the synapse to facilitate communication between neurons.

Synaptic cleft

Gap between neurons

Vesicles

Filled with neurotransmitters

Axons speak!

Dendrites listen!

Neurotransmitters

Biochemical messengers; either too much or too little can result in psychopathology

Presynaptic

Refers to the part of a neuron that releases neurotransmitters into the synapse, which is the gap between two neurons. It is responsible for transmitting signals to the postsynaptic neuron.

Postsynaptic

Refers to the region of a synapse that receives signals from the presynaptic neuron. It is typically the dendrites or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron.

Synapse

A junction between two nerve cells, where electrical or chemical signals are transmitted. It allows for communication and information transfer between neurons.

How do neurons communicate?

They release specific neurotransmitters that tell other neurons what to do

Reuptake

Some neurotransmitters get reabsorbed into neurons to be used again

Degradation

When an enzyme breaks down the neurotransmitter and it can’t be used anymore

Diffusion

When the neurotransmitters just wash away and aren’t reused

3 main roles of neurotransmitters

Release from presynaptic neuron

Bind with postsynaptic neuron

Reuptake degradation diffusion

Divisions of the nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS)

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

Nerves, takes messages all over

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary muscles

Autonomic nervous system

Controls involuntary muscles

Sympathetic NS

Expends energy

Parasympathetic NS

Conserves energy

Forebrain

The largest and most complex part of the brain. It consists of several structures, including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus. The forebrain is responsible for higher cognitive functions, such as thinking, memory, perception, and voluntary movement. It also plays a role in regulating emotions, sleep, and appetite.

Cerebral cortex

Responsible for higher functions of our behavior

The “executive branch” of the brain

Divided into two sections/hemispheres (left and right)

Corpus callosum

Connects the two hemispheres

Thick bundle of nerve fibers (axons)

The four lobes of the brain

Occipital, frontal, parietal, temporal

Occipital

Visual processing

Parietal

Perception of body senses

Primary somatosensory cortex

Temporal

Auditory processing

Amygdala (emotions)

Frontal

The prefrontal cortex is responsible for organization, planning of action, and aspects of memory

Primary motor cortex is responsible for control of fine movements

Stimuli

Energies in the environment that affect what we do, or our response

Sensation

How information enters the system

Perception

The interpretation of that information

Light

Stimulus that the visual system is designed to detect

Electromagnetic spectrum

The continuum of all the frequencies of radiated energy

Pupil

Adjustable opening in the eye through which light passes

Cornea

Rigid transparent covering on the outer surface of the eye

Iris

Colored area around the pupil

Fovea

Central area of the retina; has the most visual recepters

Blind spot

Retinal area where the optic nerve exits

Lens

Flexible structure that adjusts or accommodates its focus for objects at different distances

Retina

Layer of visual receptors covering the back surface of the eyeball

Rods

Number- 125 million

Location in retina- periphery

Prefers light during the night (dim)

Color sensitive- no

Cones

Number- 6 million

Location in retina- center

Prefers light during the day

Color sensitive- yes

Dark adaptation

Levels of photopigment build back up (making more sensitive)

Light adaptation

Breakdown of photopigment (making less sensiive)

Photopigment

Chemicals that are activated by light

The Young-Helmholtz or trichromatic theory

Proposes that our receptors respond to three primary colors

Each type of cone is most sensitive to a specific range of electromagnetic wavelengths

Short wavelengths = blue

Medium wavelengths = green

Long wavelengths = red

The opponent-process theory

Ewald Hering proposed that we perceive color not in terms of separate categories, but rather in a system of paired opposites

Red vs green

Yellow vs blue

White vs black

The Retinex theory

Perceive color and brightness by contrasting each image with its environment

Sound waves

Vibrations of the air

Amplitude

Intensity of sound waves and is perceived as loudness

Frequency

Number of vibrations or cycles of the sound wave per second, referred to as hertz (Hz)

Auditory nerve

Transmits impulses from cochlea to the brain

Eustachian tube

Responsible for equalizing pressure between air outside ear and within middle ear

Pinna

Very outside of the ear