Social Exam

isomorphic communication

when communication is effective across cultures

4 stages of competence

1. unconscious incompetence

2. conscious incompetence

3. conscious competence

4. unconscious competence

individualistic cultures consider ____a credible source

credible sources, experts, and winners

collectivist cultures consider ____a credible source

older males and famous families

paralinguistic communication

the non-verbal elements of communication that accompany speech and convey meaning, such as tone of voice, pitch, volume, rhythm, and intonation

Sussman and Rosenfield physical distance study

studied American and Japanese people

found men stood farther apart in both cultures

Japanese people stand even farther apart

Watson eye contact study

high level eye contact in latin America and with southern europeans

low level of eye contact with Japanese Indians and Northern Europeans

physical touch study between Americans and Japanese

parts of the body being touched is culturally determined

americans touch more

women touch more and with more variety in both cultures

we stare _____ at attractive people

longer

modern propaganda characteristics

make them laugh/think

use peripheral route (visual metaphors)

hire celebrities ( we trust winners)

make it unusual/ exaggerate

group

when 2 or more people define themselves define themselves as members it and when it existence is recognized by at least one other

group elements (4)

common goals

social structure

face-to-face

self-categorization

individualistic belief of groups

we do not need to study groups as there is nothing more to the group than the people who comprise it

collectivist view of groups

there is something more to the group then just people who comprise it

norms

ways of specifying what are acceptable or unacceptable attitudes and behaviours of group members

central norms

everyone expects these norms

peripheral norms/ general norms

these can be broken at times (or if you have social credit)

functions of norms

a frame of reference to interpret the word provides predictability and useful in novel situations for individuals

group norms

serve as social regulation that helps the group run smoothly and enhances group identity

Levine and Moreland (1985) 3 process of group socialization

1. evaluation

2. commitment

3. role transition

evaluation (group socialization)

group members evaluate individuals and vise versa

commitment (group socialization)

how group is committed to you and you are committed to the group

assumptions of group socialization

group exists over time and individuals move in and out of group

group and individual have reciprocal influence over each other

group socialization has 5 stages of membership

stage 1: investigation

recruitment occurs

new members are identified and evaluated

role transition : entry

sometimes makes by celebration or hazing

Stage 2 : socialization

the new members tries to influence the group so their needs are satisfied

group tries to influence individual to contribute more

role transition : acceptance of your role

Stage 3: maintenance

considerable negotiation to find best role for individuals

aim is to satisfy the personal needs of members and the goals of the group

role transition: divergence

divergence is not good for group or group member

Stage 4 : resocialization

after divergence the person tries to accommodate themselves in the group and the group does the same

it is easier to re join the same group than find new group

important why the person is leaving

role transition: exit

stage 5 remembrance

retrospective evaulation happens from both the person and the group

intergroup behaviour

whenever individuals belonging to one group interact collectively or individual with another group or its members

categorization

lumping together of objects into meaningful groups

categorization is the most….

basic level of thinking and becomes more sophisticated with age

why do we categorize things so much?

to reduce complexity of the world

human cognitive capacity is limited

categorization is an efficient way to deal with wide stimuli

social categorization

classification of people into groups based on common attributes

category accentuaition

after categories are formed there is a tendency to exaggerate the differences b/t groups

Ingroup favouritism

tendency to prefer members of your group over others

outgroup homogeneity

tendency to see members of other groups as being all the same

familiarity hypothesis

different amount of info we have about members of out group influences how we influences see them (less info=all the same)

we are more motivated to learn about members of the

in group

absolute deprivation

absence of basic human needs

relative deprivation

perceived injustice that one has less than one deserves in comparison to others

egotistic relative deprivation

comparing personal achievement to someone else

franternalistic relative deprivation

comparing what other groups have in comparison to what you group has

intergroup aggression

a crucial precondition for collective action and for intergroup aggression is relative deprevation

altruistic motivation

acting to benefit others with no concern for how it benefits us

egoistic motivation

acting in a prosocial way that benefits us

the greek philosopher Epictetus believed that

there is no such thing as altruistic acts and all acts are actually egoism

why does the bystander effect happen

people have to make many sequential decisions before helping and it is too tiring

pluralistic ignorance

we accept others interpretation as the accurate interpretation

cognitive model of helping

does the bystander accept responsibility

how is the event interpreted

does the bystander notice the event

kin selection

helping relatives 1st to ensure our genetic information being passed on

as opposed to everyday events, in a life or death situation we are most likely to help

healthy people than sick people

reciprocity credit

helping someone so they will hep you in the future

we help others because of

1. helping others makes us feel good

2. helps us avoid punishment

3. reduces aversive arousal

empathy-altruism-hypothesis

feeling empathy for a person in need which leads to altruistic motivation to receive that need

in empathy expereiments when a person saw their friend be shocked their brain….

reacted as through they themselves were about to be shocked

Countries are less helpful when they are

richer

punishment promotes

cooperation

the effectiveness of punsihment in promoting cooperation was greater in

high trust societies

neighbourhood diversity was associated with

decline of helpful behaviour in the USA but not Canada

occurrence of aggression depends on

past experiences

current reinforcement

social and cognitive functions regarding appropriateness of such behaviours

an inflated sense of self is associated with

more enagement in agression

frustration-aggression theory

his theory proposes that frustration (the blocking of an individual's attempt to achieve a desired goal) always leads to some form of aggression.

aggression can be amplified by

situational cues which creates negative feelings

Types of violence

differ across cultures

ex. gun violence in the states tends to involve individuals

aggressive behaviour is also impacted by the _____ of the culture

ecology (location and resources available)

media constructs violence as a

cultural norm for men

children who grow up in aggressive homes are more likely to

behave aggressively

2 principles that influence behaviour in social learning theory

1. modelling

2. reinforcement

aggression in 8 year old girls

1. indirect agression

2. verbal agression

3. physical

aggression in 15 year old girls

girls show less physical aggression over all but more verbal aggression ag

Aggression in 8 y/o boys

1. physical and verbal (tied)

2. in direct

aggression in 15 y/o boys

physical stays the same

verbal aggression increases

indirect agression is never a main tool for men

how do stereotypes form

social categorization and categorical thinking

consequences of categorical thinking

in group favouritism

out group homogeneity

stereotyping is a

automatic process

subliminal presentation

something that is below perception level but is still influential

motivation and devoting cognitive resources can lead to

the suppression of sterotypes

morning people tend to engage in more stereotypes

at night as they have less cognitive ability

stereotypes are often used to

justify the in-group behaviours

stereotypes serve as a way of

selecting social realty

perpetuating of the existing intergroup relationship

stereotypes are powerful social schemas that

create tendencies to confirm our biases and overlook inconsistent information

evidence indicates that some action by the person who holds the stereotype to provoke

confirmatory behaviour in the target person

contact hypothesis

way to decrease intergroup bias through personalized interactions with out groups

conditions under which contact with opposing group leads to a reduction in tension or hostility

1. cooperation

2. equal status participation

3. active social norms in support of change in attitudes

Recatgeorzation

forming a new group with cross categorical membership

decatgegorzation

personalized contact which de-emphasizes rigid group identities and helps us develop empathy for out-group

intergroup paradigm goals

1. reduce use of categories

2. encourage diversity

Prejudice

a negative attitude toward a socially defined group and toward any person to be a member of that group

while survey studies showed prejudice is declining…

covert measures such as implicit association test showed prejudice is not declining

prejudice is still a dominant force in

intergroup relations

theories for origin of prejudice

1. inherent human potential for prejudice

2. intergroup dynamics

   1. realistic conflict theory

   2. relative deprivation

physical proximity does not fix intergroup group conflict instead….

the groups needed to work together for a common goal

Ratters and Eagles study

showed in-groups lead to conflict but that a shared goal could lead to cooperation

affirmative action is based on 3 main ideas

1. targets to entire groups not just individuals

2. preferential treatment for members that have suffered discrimination

3. effectiveness is judged by results not intent

contemporary models of prejudice

prejudice has not truly been reduced but rather overt expression of prejudice has been replaced with more covert forms of prejudice

aversive racism

people hold both egalitarian values and prejudice beliefs and behaviours towards minorities depends on situational cues

dissociation model

to understand the nature of prejudice one needs to distinguish b/t knowledge of stereotypes and endorsement of stereotype

3 major factors of attraction

1. physical proximity

2. physical attractiveness

3. we like others similar to us

asymmetric dominance effect

when 2 options are presented each of which will appeal to some people a third option is than introduced which serves as a decoy or distractor

Griffitt 1970 study classical conditioning in attraction

people liked those who are similar to them in the comfortable room suggesting the feeling of the pleasant room is tied to the stranger and vice versa for unpleasant room