issues and debates

Universality definition

• any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all despite differences of experience and upbringing

What threatens the universality of findings in psychology

• gender bias

• Culture bias

Gender bias definition

• may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men and women

Androcentrism definition

• when normal behaviour is judged according to the male standard

Alpha bias definition

• research that focuses on differences between men and women and tend to present a view that exaggerates these differences

Beta bias definition

Research that focuses on similarities between men and women and presents a view that ignores or minimises differences

What is the result of beta bias in psychological research

• we end up with a view of human nature that is supposed to apply to both men and women but has a male androcentric view

What did Freud argue about the genuine psychological differences between men and women

• theory suggests that women are inferior and young girls experience penis envy

• Viewed femininity as a failed form of masculinity

Who was biological research for flight or fight carried out on

• males animals

• Assumed this wouldn’t be the problems as the assumption was made that it would be the same for both sexes

What did Taylor et al reveal about fight or flight response

• females tend to adopt ‘tend and befriend’ in stressful or dangerous situations

• Women more likely to protect offspring (tend) and form alliances with other women (befriend)

Ethnocentrison definition

Type of cultural bias that involves judging other cultures by the standard and values of one’s own culture

Cultural realism definition

• idea that norms, values, ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts

Cultural bias definition

• tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture

What did Henrich et al establish

• WEIRD

• cultures most likely to be studies

what is the Etic approach

• behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe that behaviour as universal

What is the Emic approach

• functions within a certain culture

• Identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture

What is an individualistic culture

• prioritisation of individual needs over needs of a group

What is a collectivist culture

• People put the needs of the community first

Imposed etic definition

• test, measure or theory derided in one culture that is used to explain behaviour in another culture

Cultural psychology definition

• study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural differences

What has the emergence of cultural psychology resulted in

• the incorporation of work from researchers in other disciplines like sociology and political science

• Strive to avoid ethnocentrism by taking emic approach

Some of the most influential studies and culturally biased, which ones

• Asch and Milgram- exclusively US participants

What happened in a variant of Asch study in a collectivist culture

• significantly higher rates of conformity

How were the WWI IQ tests ethnocentric

• 7.75 million army recruits

• Name the US president

• Southeast Europe, African Americans received lowest

• When minorities deemed mentally unfit

What is the idiographic approach

• focuses on the individual and a person as a unique entity rather that creating a general law for all

What does idiographic research usually involve

• case studies

• Qualitative data

• Unstructured interviews

• Self-report measures

Examples of idiographic approaches

• humanistic

• Psychodynamic

What is a strength to idiographic approach

• can create in depth research using qualitative investigations

• Case study of HM was rare but led to further research and theories which wouldn’t have occurred without the idiographic approach

What is a weakness to the idiographic approach

• studies can sometimes be used to make sweeping generalised statements that turn out to be untrue

• For example, Frueds little Hans study on the Oedipus complex

What is the nomothetic approach

• Focuses on large smaller and tries to create general laws that can be applied to all and measure against

What does nomothetic research usually involve

• experiments

• Quantitative data

Examples of the nomothetic approach

• behaviourism

• Cognitive

• Biological

What are the types of general law in the nomothetic approach

• classifying people into groups

• Establishing principles of behavior then applying them to the general public

• Establishing dimensions then comparing the wider population to these

What is a strength to nomothetic research

• highly scientific as it uses standardised instructions in controlled environments which limited the effect of EV

• average IQ is 100- allowed us to establish typical norms and help those who are atypical

What is a weakness the the nomothetic approach

• overlooks human experience

• Just because we know that 1% of the population has the gene for schizophrenia, it tells us very little about everyday life

What is a solution to the problems created by using both the idiographic and nomothetic approach

• research would benefit from using both perspectives rather than viewing as separate

Ethical implications definition

• The impact that psychological research may have

• Including impact in participants, society and how certain groups of people are viewed

When do ethical implications arise

• when there is conflict between gaining valuable and valid findings Vs preserving the rights and dignity of the participants

Social sensitivity definition

• research in which there are potential consequences or implications either directly for the participants or the group of individuals represented by the research

What socially sensitive research did Robert Yerkes conduct

• flawed research

• Argues black Americans had a lower IQ than white Americans

What did Robert Yerkes flawed research result in

• 1907-63

• 64,000 forcibly sterilised under eugenic legislation in US

• 1972: Inited States comittee revealed that at least 2000 involuntary sterilisations were performed in black women without their consent or knowledge

What did Seiber and Stanley create

• a list of things researchers should consider when conducting socially sensitive research

What was on Sieber and Stanley’s list

• implications- wider effects such as giving justification for prejudice and racism

• Uses/policy- what ths research may be used for and what would happen if it was for the wrong purpose

• Validity

How can socially sensitive research benefit the wider population

• understand stereotypes

• Loftus research into false memories and eyewitness testimonies changed the way we interview people after a crime

What are weaknesses for social sensitive research

• researchers must consider how their findings will be used

• Can be used for social control - 1930s individuals with low IQ, mental health or addictions were sterilised

• True impact cannot be known until the research is conducted, despite with I am comitees