RESEARCH METHODS - INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS

What are quantitative methods of data?

Numerical data, quantifyable (yes or no)

Advantage of quantitive data?

Easy to compare, other people could replicate it, plotting a graph/pie-chart, easy, quick, cheap

Disadvantage of quantitive data?

We don't get reasoning/justification, lacks validity (seeing the full picture)

What are quantitive methods of data?

Data based on words and opinions, words (spoken or written)

Advantages of qualitative data?

Provides reasoning, delves deeper, high validity

Disadvantage of qualitative data?

Hard to analyze, slower, more expensive, hard, time consuming, harder to replicate (asking in the same way)

What are the 2 ways research data can be collected?

Primary and secondary data

Quantitive and qualitative data

What is a hypothesis?

A prediction about the data result before it has been carried out

For something that can be tested to see if it is true

Write a hypotheses for an experiment in education?

I think that over 50% of the students studying maths in this college enjoy it

What is primary data?

Data that you have collected yourself for your own purpose

Collects a “first hand picture”

What is secondary data?

Date that has already been collected by someone else for their own purposes

Advantages of primary data?

Reliable, personalized to your research, present day, collects the data you need

Disadvantage of primary data?

Can be time consuming, expensive, could be research bias

Advantages of secondary data?

Quick, easy, cheap, insight into how to collect data, cannot falsify

Disadvantage of secondary data?

Could be outdated, could be unreliable

What are PET concerns?

Practical

Ethical

Theoretical

What do sociologists use PET for?

Sociologists will evaluate the strengths and limitations of the research methods using these 3 factors

What are examples of practical issues?

Time and money

The status of someone

Requirements of funding bodies

Personal skills and characteristics

What is an example of an expensive service?

A large scale survey - employing dozens of workers would cost more money

How could the status of someone influence research?

How much time and money is at their disposable

Could be status (working/middle class), ethnicity

For example, a profession would have a grant to conduct research whereas students would not have access to such funds

What is an example of a requirement of a funding body?

A government department funding researching into educational achievement may have targets for pass rates and therefore require quantitive data to see if targets have been achieved

How could this be achieved?

Through questionnaires or structured interviews

What is a structured interview?

Asking everyone the same questions in the same order

How could these methods produce quantitive data?

Yes or no questions (minimal options), the same questions asked

What does different skills and characteristics mean?

Each sociologists will posses different skills and characteristics

What is an example of a personal skill?

Participant observation rehires the ability to get on well with others

Good observation skills

Recall skills

In covert participant observations

Gains trust

Subject matter

What is the difference between participant observation and covert participant observations?

Participant observation - knows that you are in an interview

Covert participant observations - unaware that you are part of an interview

What does in depth interviews require?

Require the researcher to establish a positive rapport with the subject or subject group to gain trust

Why is "subject matter" an important skill? Example

A male could not conduct participant research into a female group, or a written questionnaire could not be used for those who cannot read or write

What is an example of a subject matter that may be hard for people?

If a male was questioning women over domestic abuse, they may not feel comfortable (may require a female colleague)

How would the idea or “subject matter” make it difficult when researching education?

Younger people may be less mature, more self consciousness, could lead to researcher bias, may not want to open up, may struggle to relate to interviewer, unsure where the information will go, people with learning disabilities may misinterpret the question

What is an example of when a research opportunity unexpectedly arose and was able to conduct research?

In 1973, a school master James Patrick (26) was offered the opportunity to observe a Glasgow gang by a 16 year old juvenile offender named Tim (only Tim knew)

What did James Patrick do?

Participant covert observation

He took part in all the gangs activities (posed as a member of the group )

• drugs, knives, sez, fights

What does ethical refer to?

Moral issues of right and wrong

What is the name of the association who sets out ethical guidelines for conducting research?

The British Sociological Association (BSA)

What are some examples of ethical guidelines?

• informed consent (should be offered to refuse if involved)

• confidentially and privacy

• harm to research participants

• vulnerable groups

• covert research

Can people withdraw from research? What happens to the research?

Yes - they should be given the option to withdraw and refuse

The research must be discarded

What is an example of how researchers can keep peoples privacy?

Fake names/using initials/person A and person B

What age is it until parental consent needs to be given for research?

Up to 16

What is the difference between covert and overt research?

Overt - the people know they are part of a research/study task

Covert - the people do not know they are part of a research/study task

Why do some people disapprove of covert research?

This can create serious ethical problems such as lying or deceiving people to win their trust or gain information

What are some other reasons covert research is said to be unethical?

They do not have your consent, breaks someone’s privacy, abuses their trust, invasive to gain information, builds relationships with people - leading to them being guarded and wary in the future

Why do sociologists argue covert research can be justified?

When infiltrating dangerous, secretive or powerful groups

What are 3 examples of studies that broke ethical guidelines?

The Milgram Obedience Study (1963)

The Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)

Laud Humphreys “Tearoom Trade” (1970)

What was the Milgram Obedience Study (1963)?

He made participants believe that they were in control of administering painful electric shocks to another person (an actor) if they answered a question wrong, he wanted to see how far people would go to listen to an authoritative figure, he revealed that 65% administered 450volts

What was the Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)?

A psychology professor, Phillip Zimbardo designed a 2 week simulation of a prison environment, 24 participants were offered $15 a day (around $119.41 in 2025), people were assigned to roles (guard or prisoner) and the experiment revealed the guards abuse of the prisoners went too far, it was called off on the 6th day

What was Laud Humphrey’s “Tearoom trade” (1970)?

The study is an analysis of men who participate in anonymous sex with other men in public restrooms "tearoomimg" in the US, "cottaging" in the UK, he posed as the "lookout", and he revealed 54% were heterosexual men

What are theoretical issues?

Question of what we think society is like and whether we can obtain an accurate truthful picture of it

What are the 3 main theoretical issues?

Validity, reliability, representativeness

What is validity?

A valid method is one that produces a true or genuine picture of what something is really like, it allows the researcher to get closer to the truth

What is an example of a qualitative and quantitative method of research?

Quan - questionnaire (easily back up existing theory)

Qual - participant research (gives reasoning, but may not be repeatable)

What is reliability? What is it also known as?

Replicability

Allows a researcher to conduct the same study (replicate it) and get the same results

Why do some researchers want reliability?

Strongly backs up theory if same data is collected

Does qualitative or quantitative data tend to give more reliable results?

Quantitive

What does representativeness refer to?

Whether the people we study are a typical cross section of the group we are interested in

If we want a sample, what must we ensure?

It is diverse - ages, ethnicities, backgrounds, social classes

If a sample is representative of the population, what does this allow us to do?

Make generalizations