Cognitive Processing

what are the 4 essential understandings?

1. mental representations guide our behavior

2. models can be used to help us understand complex processes (like memory and decision-making)

3. humans are information processors

4. the mind can be studied scientifically although it cannot be directly observed

what is behaviorism?

the dominant school of scientific psychology during the 1950s that says that processes that take place within the mind cannot be studied and only observable behavior should be studied

what is cognition?

refers to mental processes such as perception, thinking, and decision-making

what is bottom-up processing and top-down processing?

bottom-up: sensory info (input) passes through mental representations (software) and the brain (hardware). top-down: then it is processed via pre-stored info in memory, then there is some output in the form of behavior. bottom-up info is interpreted by top-down influence of relevant schemas.

what does “we are cognitive misers” mean?

we often make the choice not to actively process info to save time and effort. we use mental shortcuts because of three factors: knowledge (i don’t know), motivation (i don’t care), and economy (i don’t have time).

what a schema?

mental representations that are derived from prior experience and knowledge and help us to predict what to expect based on what has happened before.

what is a script?

a pattern of behavior learned through our interaction with the environment developed within a cultural context (they are not universal). ex: how to eat spaghetti

what is schema theory?

based on the 3rd essential understanding. it says that people do not passively respond to info, even if they are not always aware of it. if info is missing, the brain fills in the blanks based on existing schemas, which can result in mistakes

what are the three main stages of memory processes?

encoding, storage, and retrieval

what is encoding?

transforming sensory info into memory

what is storage?

creating a biological trace of the encoded info in memory, which is either consolidated or lost

what is retrieval?

using the stored info in thinking, problem-solving and decision-making

what is an advantage of schema theory?

seems useful for understanding how people categorize info, interpret info, and make inferences. it has also contributed to our understanding of memory distortions and false memories.

what are some limitations of schema theory?

it is not entirely clear how schemas are initially acquired or the exact way they influence cognitive processes. it has been argued that it cannot account for why schema-inconsistem info is sometimes recalled.

what is assimilation?

when you fit new information into your schema

what does the concept of memory refer to?

the process by which info is encoded, stored, and retrieved

what is a model of memory?

a hypothesized representation of memory and outline of the diff stores and processes of how memory might work

what are the types of memory?

procedural and declarative, which has two subsets: episodic, and semantic

what is declarative memory?

memory of facts and events (knowing what)

what is episodic memory?

a subset of declarative memory, the memory of specific events that have occurred at a given time and place

what is semantic memory?

a subset of declarative memory, the memory of general knowledge of facts and people not linked to time and place

what is procedural memory?

the unconscious memory of skills and how to do things (knowing how)

what assumptions are the multi-store model based on?

1. memory contains separate locations where info is stored

2. memory processes are sequential

3. each memory store works in a single, uniform way

draw the multi-store model

what does the msm suggest about sensory info?

that it enters sensory memory, which is modality specific. the most important stores in the model are the visual store (iconic memory) and the auditory store (echoic memory).

what are strengths of the msm?

• historically important

• significant research to support theory of separate memory stores

what are limitations of the msm?

• over-simplified

• does not explain memory distortion

• does not explain why some things may be learned with minimal amt of rehearsal

• there are several times info is rehearsed a lot but the info does not transfer to ltm

what does the working memory model suggest?

stm is not a single store but consists of a number of different stores

draw the working memory model

what is the central executive?

an attention control system that decides how and when the sub-systems are used. it has limited capacity and is modality-free. it controls using two levels.

what are the two levels of attention control?

automatic level and supervisory attention levels

what is the automatic level?

based on habits that rely on schemas in ltm and are controlled more or less automatically by stimuli from the environment.

what is the supervisory attention level?

it deals with planning and decision-making and creates new strategies when the old ones are no longer sufficient.

what is the phonological loop?

the auditory component of stm divided into two components.

what are the two components of the phonological loop?

the articulatory control system (inner voice) and the phonological store (inner ear).

what is the articulatory control system?

it holds information in a verbal form, like when you repeat a phone number over and over to yourself. it is also believed to hold words ready for cog tasks, like when you prepare to speak.

what is the phonological store?

it holds auditory memory traces. it can receive info directly from sensory memory as auditory material, from ltm as verbal info, and from the articulatory control system.

what is articulatory suppression?

when participants are asked to repeat a word while they memorize a list of words.

what is the visuospatial sketchpad?

the visual component of stm. temporary store for visual and spatial info from either. sensory memory or ltm. helps remember both what and where visual info is.

what is the episodic buffer?

acts as a temporary and passive display store until the info is needed but has limited capacity and is responsible for our conscious awareness.

what are strengths of the working memory model?

• supported by considerable experimental evidence

• brain scans show that a diff area of the brain is active when carrying out verbal tasks than visual tasks

• case studies of patients with brain damage support

• model helps understand multi-tasking

what are limitations of the working memory model?

• role of central executive is unclear even though B&H said it was the most important part

• how the components interact is not yet clear

• only explains stm and very little about processes involved in ltm

• does not explain memory distortion or role of emotion in memory formation

what is thinking?

the process of using knowledge and info to make plans, interpret the world, and make predictions.

what are the components of thinking?

there are several, including decision-making, problem-solving, creativity, and reasoning.

what is decision-making?

process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on values and preferences of the decision-maker.

what is problem solving?

thinking directed toward solving specific problems through a set of mental strategies

what is the dual process model?

says that there are two basic modes of thinking: system 1 and system 2.

explain system 1 thinking

automatic, intuitive, effortless way of thinking that often utilizes heuristics. it may be prone to errors and is expected to create a greater feeling of certitude (certainty that our initial response is correct). it is argued that we are more likely to use it when our cognitive load is high or we have to make a quick decision.

explain heuristics

heuristics are mental shortcuts

explain system 2 thinking

slower, conscious, and rational mode of thinking.

what are strengths of the dual process model?

• there is biological evidence that diff types of thinking may be processed in diff parts of the brain

• the wason selection task and other tests for cognitive biases are reliable in their results

what are limitations of the dual process model?

• seems overly reductionist: doesn’t clearly explain how or if these modes of thinking interact and how it could be influenced by emotion

• definitions are not always clear. fast does not automatically equal system 1