AP Pscyhology Learning Unit 06

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 215)

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 216)

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 216)

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 218)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (Myers Psychology for AP 1e pp. 6, 218)

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 219)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 219)

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 219)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 219)

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 220)

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 220)

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 221)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 221)

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 222)

discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (2) unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e pp. 222, 664)

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 223)

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 228)

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 228)

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 228)

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 229)

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 229)

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 229)

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement). (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 230)

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 230)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 231)

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 231)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 231)

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 231)

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 232)

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 232)

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 232)

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 233)

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 233)

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 233)

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 234)

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 236)

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 236)

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e pp. 236, 300)

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 237)

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 237)

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e pp. 240)

observational learning

learning by observing others. Also called social learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 242)

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 242)

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 243)

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 246)