Fungi and Protostomes

Bruhbruhbruh

Opisthokonta

• Part of unikonta clade with amoebozoa

• includes Nucleariids, Fungi, Choanoflagellates, and Animalia

Similarities between Fungi and Animalia

Multicellular (most Fungi and ALL Animalia)

Use chitin as structural material (Synapomorphy)

No plastids (plesiomorphy)

Heterotrophic (plesiomorphy)

Glucose stored as glycogen (Synapomorphy)

Produce melanin to protect from UV radiation (Synapomorphy)

Fungi Importance

Decompose organic material

Bioremediation

Pest control

Antibiotics

Cooking

Hyphae

makes up main body

cytoplasmic filaments

Mycelium

mass of underground hyphae, used for feeding

No

Do fungi have true tissues?

Aseptate/Coenocytic

Without walls separating nuclei within hyphae (multinucleate)

Septate

Hyphae with 1 or 2 cell walls separating nuclei

Fungi Lifestyles

Commensualistic, Mutualistic, Parasitic, Saprophytic

Fungi Reproduction

• haploid dominant lifestyles

• only one diploid cell is the zygote (NO multicellular diploid stage)

• Haploid spores from meiosis/mitosis

• Reproductive structures are used to differentiate between different groups of fungi

Delayed Karyogamy

“gamete” cells cannot fuse without their nuclei fusing immediately

Groups of Fungi

• Chytridiomycota

• Zygomycota

• Glomeromycota

• Dikarya→Ascomycota + Basidiomycota

Chytridiiomycota

• water molds (share name with oomycetes)

Only phylum with:

1. Isogamous Reproduction

2. Flagellated sperms and isogomites (ZOOSPORES)

• Alternation of generations (sporophyte dominant)

• mostly saprophytic w/ some being parasitic

• aseptate hyphae

• aquatic habitats

Chytridiomycota Life Cycle

Thick-walled sporangium→ haploid motile zoospores

Thin-walled sporangia→diploid motile zoospores

Gametangia→produce haploid isogamete

Zygomycota

• Bread molds

• Aseptate Hyphae

• Normally, asexual reproduction with a sporangium and a sporangiophore

• Characterize by zygospore (diploid zygote and protective wall)'

  • Zygosporangium is product of 2 haploid gametangia merging

• Mostly saprophytic

karyogamy

fusion of two haploid cells with 2 distinct nuclei

Zygomycota life cycle

Glomeromycota

• Aseptate hyphae

• Mutualistic

• Arbuscular (Endotrophic) Mycorrhizae

• Mycorrhizae

• Hyphae enter the root cells of the plant and form arbuscules

• Complete lack of sexual reproductive structures

• No known asexual reproductive structures

Ascomycota and Basidiomycota

• Septate hyphae

• Often from Ectotrophic Mycorrhizae (Hyphae surround plant root cells)

• Form fruiting bodies

• Large, visible structures

  • Used for sexual reproduction and spore production

Ascomycota

• Sac fungi

~30,000 species: morels, truffles,

many yeasts, mildew, and many

“molds”

• Conidiophores: a branching structure

used for asexual reproduction, spores

called conidia at the tips

• Ascocarp: fruiting body used for sexual reproduction, made of intertwined dikaryotic and monokaryotic hyphae

• Produce a diploid zygote, which then undergoes meiosis and mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores

• Mostly saprophytic

• The 2 main types of Ascocarps (Enclosed and

  cup-shaped)

• Parasitic sac fungi

• Extend specialized absorption cells from

  hyphae into the host to steal water and

  nutrients

• Erysiphe (powdery mildew)

• Imperfect sac fungi

• Do not have the ascocarp stage

• Reproduce asexually via conidiophores and conidia

• Penicillium

Basidiomycota

• Club fungi

~25,000 species: mushrooms, puffballs,

shelf fungi, rusts, smuts

• Lack of asexual reproduction

• Basidiocarp (Mushroom): fruiting structure, formed from intertwined dikaryotic hyphae

• Basidia: microscopic cells in the fruiting body (lining the gills) that produce a diploid zygote, which then produces haploid spores (basidiospores)

Yeasts

• Polyphyletic taxon

• Highly derived unicellular

• Ascomycota and Basidiomycota

• Lost the ability to form hyphae and other multicellular structures

• Generally reproduce asexually budding

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Lichens

• Mutualistic association

• Fungal component (usually Ascomycota) + photosynthetic component (Chlorophyte or Cyanobacteria) + Basidiomycota Yeast

• Survive harsh conditions

• Independent reproduction for all components

Zygomycota

Rhizopus (Bread mold)

Asscomycota

Penicillin

Basidiomycota

Coprinus

Lichens

Thallus

Kingdom Animalia

• All multicellular

• No cell walls

• Most have unique tissues

• Most have sexual reproduction

• Most are diploid

• The vast majority are aquatic

Animal Life Cycle

Classification of Animalia

• Symmetry

• Asymmetrical (Porifera), Radial (Cnidaria), Bilateral (All other animal phyla)

• Tissue & organs

• Presence/absence/type of body cavity

• Embryonic development

• DNA

No true tissues

One germ layer

Porifera

Diploblastic

Two layers: endoderm and ectoderm

Cnidaria

Triploblastic

Three layers: endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm

All other Animalia

Phylum Porifera

• Sponges

• Asymmetrical

• No tissues or organs

• Many cells are totipotent (can divide into any cell)

• Adults are sessile (do not move on their own)

• Serially hermaphroditic

• Males and females at different parts of the life cycle

• Cells embedded in a gelatinous matrix called the mesohyl

• Skeleton can be:

  • Fibrous–soft, protein-based (spongin)

  • Mineralized – hard, made of silicon dioxide or calcium carbonate spicules

• 90% have a skeleton made of both

• 2 taxa:

  • Silicea

  • Calcarea

Sponge anatomy

Ostia

Spongocoel

Osculum:

Choanocysts

Amoebocytes

Spicules

Ostia

incurrent pores formed by the porocyte cells

Spongocoel

cavity within the sponge

Osculum

opening where water exits

Choanocysts

filter-feeding cells with flagella, lining the interior of the sponge

Amoebocytes

move around the mesophyll (intracellular spaces), similar to an amoeba, to collect food and secrete calcium carbonate/silicon dioxide spicules

spicules

a spikey structure that forms skeleton

Phylum Cnidaria

• Radial symmetry

• Diploblastic

  • Tissues

  • Epidermis and inner gastrodermis are separated by mesoglea

• Statocysts: primitive sense organs

• Hydrostatic skeleton

  • Supported by fluid pressure

• Gastrovascular cavity: single opening for feeding and expelling waste

• Hermaphroditic

2 major taxa:

• Anthozoa

  • Anemone

• Medusozoa

  • Jellyfish

Cnidocytes

Specialized cells that sting prey for food or sting in defense

Nematocyst

Stinging organelles within the cnidocytes

Anatomy of Cnidaria

Cnidocytes

Nematocyst

Anthozoa

• Sea anemones and corals

• Polyp body form is only Sessile (mostly)

Reproduction:

Sexual

Asexual by budding or dividing

• All marine

• Many colonial

• Some make exoskeletons of calcium carbonate (Coral)

Medusozoa

• Cnidarians with a medusa life stage

3 taxa within:

Hydrozoa

Scyphozoa

Cubozoa

Hydrozoa

• Both the polyp and the medusa body forms

• Polyps are usually dominant in the life cycle

• The polyp stage is often colonial

• Asexual reproduction by budding

• Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia)

• Hydra

Scyphozoa

• Medusa's body form is dominant, polyp form reduced

• Segmented polyps asexually reproduce

• Medusas only reproduce sexually

• Turritopsis dohrnii

Cubozoa

• (Box jellies/sea wasps)

• Box-shaped medusa (no polyps)

• Four tentacles at each corner

• Sexual reproduction only

• Well-developed visual sense allows for hunting

• One of the most venomous animals

• Chironex fleckeri can kill an adult human in minutes

 

True tissues

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic or structure found in Porifera? (found in eumetozoans)

 

Capturing prey and defense through stinging

What is the function of the cnidocyte, the distinguishing cell type of Cnidarians?

Cnidaria

Corals are found in _____ which Phylum.

Porifera

Choanocytes are found in _____.

basidiomycete yeast
cyanobacteria
ascomycete fungus

algae

For the last 150 years or so, it was thought that lichens were composed of a symbiotic relationship between two organisms; an alga and a fungus. New data has shown that they are frequently found to contain at least three organisms, that could include (More than one answer may be correct):

characteristics of Cnidarian

Alternation between motile medusa and sessile polyp stages

 Specialized stinging cells called cnidocytes

 Presence of mesoglea between tissue layers

 Diploblastic body structure with radial symmetry

Ectoderm

•outermost layer

•Becomes skin & nervous system

Endoderm

•innermost layer

•Becomes gut, liver, lungs

Mesoderm

•middle layer

•Becomes skeleton, heart, kidney, muscle, and blood

Acoelomate

No body cavity

Pseudocoelomate

Body cavity between mesoderm & endoderm

Coelomate

The body cavity is completely lined with mesoderm

coelom

•Fluid cushions suspended organs

•Inner and outer mesodermal layers (mesentery) suspend the internal organs

•Allows internal organs to grow and move independently of the outer body wall

Triploblastic

Deuterostomes

Protostomes

Protostomes

Ecdysozoa

Lophotrochozoa

•The embryonic blastopore becomes the mouth

•Coelom formation is schizocoelous (forms when mesodermal tissue “splits”)

•Cells are determinate (pre-programmed)

Deuterostomes

•Embryonic blastopore becomes the anus

•Coelom formation is enterococcus (forms when pockets of the primitive gut bud off)

Cells are indeterminate (stem cells)

Superphylum Ecdysozoa

•Ecdysis (molting): all members of this clade shed their outer body covering

•Reduced cilia

•More species than all other animals combined

• Vinegar Eels

• Horseshoe crab

• Spiders

• Centipede

• Millipede

• Grasshopper

• Crayfish

• Hermit Crab

Nematoda

•A.k.a. Roundworms

• Pseudocoelomate

•Vermiform (worm-shaped)

•Complete digestive tract

•Ventral and dorsal nerve cords

•Tough cuticle will be shed at some point in their life

•Longitudinal muscles only (whiplike movement)

• Mostly dioecious

• Vinegar eels

Anthropoda

•The most numerous and diverse group of animals

•Arthro (joint) podos (foot)

•Characteristics

•Jointed appendages

•Segmented body

•Coelom becomes part of an open circulatory system (hemocoel) with hemolymph for blood

•Exoskeleton composed of chitin

•Dioecious

•Ventral nerve cord

•Cephalized ganglia (brain)

Subphylum:

• Myriapoda

• Chelicerata

• Hexapoda

Subphylum Myriapoda

•Single pair of antennae

•Single pair simple ocelli (eyes)

•3 pairs of modified appendages for mouthparts

•Breathe with spiracles and tracheae

•Centipedes (class Chilopoda)

•Carnivorous

•1 pair of legs per segment

•Poison fangs

•Millipedes (class Diplopoda)

•Herbivorous

2 pairs of legs per segment

Subphylum Chelicerata

•Possess Chelicerae (pincers or fangs)

•Possess Pedipalps (accessory appendages beside the mouth)

•No antennae or mandibles

•3 or 4 pairs of ocelli (eyes)

•2 body regions

•Cephalothorax & abdomen

•6 pairs of appendages in total

•4 pairs of legs, 1 set of chelicerae, 1 set of pedipalps

•Breathe using gills or book lungs

•Often have a vestigial tracheal network

(Spiders, Horseshoecrap, Scorpions)

Subphylum Hexapoda

•Insects & related taxa

•3 pairs of walking legs

•Wings (on most)

•Also have special feeding appendages and sensory organs that vary greatly among species

•Breathe using well-developed spiracles and tracheae

(Grasshoppers)

Spiracles

Holes on the side of hexapods that allow them to breathe

Tympanum

Hearing organ located on the first segment of the abdomen

Subphylum Crustacea

•Most marine, some freshwater, a few terrestrial

•2 pairs of sensory antennae

•Each body segment has 2 appendages

•Antennae, mouth parts, chelipeds, legs, swimmerets, and tail fins

•>3 pairs of walking legs

•Biramous (branched) appendages

• Gills or “branchiostegal lungs”

Hermit Crabs, Lobsters, Crayfish

Know Crayfish anatomy

Superphylum Lophotrocozoa

•10-15 phyla

•4 defining features found in many phyla:

•Increased cilia

•Many have spiral cell division/cleavage in their embryos

•Lophophore: the crown of ciliated tentacles that surrounds the mouth, used for feeding

•Trochophore: ciliated larval stage of Annelids and Molluscs

Planaria

Tapeworms

Leech

Earthworms

Polyplacophora: Chiton

Snails

Clam

Squid

Brachiopods

Platyhelminthes

•Flatworms

•Acoelomate

•Hermaphroditic

•First example of cephalization in the fossil record

•Ladder-like nervous system

•No circulatory system

•Incomplete digestive tract (for some) is large and branching

Classes:

Planarians/Turbelllaria

Cestoda

Class Turbellaria

•Planarians

•Free-living predators or scavengers

•Have protonephridia (flame cells) used for osmoregulation

•Ocelli (eye spots)

• A protrusible pharynx used for eating and expelling waste

Class Cestoda

•Tapeworms

•Internal parasites

•No digestive system (?)

•Attaches to the host via a scolex

•Shed Proglottids when mature

Platyhelminthes

Annelida

•Segmented worms

•Characteristics

•Vermiform

•Trochophore larval stage (shared with Molluscs)

•Segmented body (convergent with arthropods and vertebrates)

•Truly segmented body cavity

•Divided by septa

•Closed circulatory system (convergent with vertebrates and cephalopods)

•Cerebral ganglion & ventral nerve cord

Classes:

Errant

Sedentaria

Class Errantia

•Latin: Errere, to wander

•Free-living mobile marine worms

•Possess a pair of fleshy parapodia with tiny, chitinous chaetae or setae (bristles) on each segment

•Possess well-developed sense organs

•Antennae & eyes

Class Sedentaria

•Sedentary marine tubeworms, earthworms, and leeches

•Possess few to no setae and often have a clitellum

•Glues organisms together while mating

•Secretes a cocoon around eggs

Mollusca

•Latin: molluscus (soft)

•Mostly marine

•Have a trochophore larval stage

•Characteristics

•Foot: movement and capture food

•Visceral mass: contains the organs

•Mantle: Secretes shell

•Radula: scrapes food

•Open circulatory system: no blood vessels except the heart

Classes:

Polyplacophora

Gastropoda

Bivalvia

Cephalopoda

Class Polyplacophora

•Chitons

•Greek: poly (many) + plak (plate) + phoros (to bear)

•Segmented shell (8 plates)

•Not true segmentation

•Scrapes algae off rocks with radula

Class Gastropoda

•Slugs, snails, and relatives

•Greek: gaster (gut) + podos (foot)

•Many exhibit torsion, or 180-degree rotation of visceral mass

•2 or 4 sensory tentacles with eyes on the head

•Many have shells

Most have radula

Class Bivalvia

•Latin: bis (twice) + valva (leaf or shell)

•Clams, oysters, scallops, mussels

•Protected between two hinged valves (left and right)

•Incurrent & excurrent siphons

•Lost radula

•4 oversized gills (ctenidia) for respiration and filter-feeding

Class Cephalopoda

•Latin: cephalic (head) + podos (foot)

•Chambered nautilus, squid, and octopus

•All are predators

•Characteristics:

•Closed circulatory system with 3 hearts

• Well-developed eyes

•Highly intelligent

Dioecious

•Chromatophores

•Pigmented cells that help change color

•Octopus have 8 arms as do squids, but squids have 2 longer tentacles with hooks for grabbing prey

•Pen

•Remnant of a shell, only found in squid

•Have a beak

Brachiopoda

•Sessile & coelomate

•Protected between two hinged valves (top and bottom)

•Top shell is usually smaller than the bottom one

•Lophophore and pedicle present

•Abundant in fossil record (Paleozoic)

•Usually dioecious

Lost spiral cell cleavage

Classes:

Inarticulata

Articulata

Class Inarticulate

•Primitive

•Simple hinge mechanism

•Pedicle anchors in soft sediment

•Bristles around shell (setae)

•Valves are soft and flexible

Class Inarticulata

•Many have teeth that lock shells closed

•Complex hinge

•Pedicle anchors on rocks

•No setae

•Very few are alive today

Squid Anatomy

Earthworm Anatomy

Brachiopoda

Which of the following clades do NOT have spiral cleavage?

 

Nemata

 

Arthropoda

 

Brachiopoda

 

Mollusca

tagmosis

The evolutionary process where body segments have fused together to make specialized regions.

totipotent

The ability to become any cell type in the organism

Nemata

Which of the following phyla always has a complete gut?

 

Platyhelminthes

 

Nemata

 

Brachiopoda

Sexual Reproduction 

Multicellularity

Heterotrophy

Flagellated Cells (at some point in the life cycle)

Animals are characterized by which of the following?