Ch 1

THE PERSON AND THE SITUATION

• Both the situation and the person contribute to behaviour

• How we act depends on the situation

• How does the situation influence behaviour

• How does this behaviour reflect the individual

• Personality psychologists want to know what little differences are present between one person to the next

  • E.g., Why do some people make friends easily, whereas others are lonely?

DEFINING PERSONALITY

• The term isn't fully agreed upon

Personality: consistent behaviour patterns and intrapersonal processes originating within the individual

• This definition has 2 parts

• These are often referred to as individual differences

1. Personality is consistent

• We can identify these consistent behaviour patterns cross time and situations

  • E.g., we can expect someone who is outgoing to be outgoing tomorrow

• if personality exists and behavior is not just a reflection of whatever situation we find ourselves in, then we must expect some consistency in the way people act.

1. Intrapersonal processes

• Include all the emotional, motivational, and cognitive processes that go on inside of us that affect how we act and feel

• These aspects originate within the individual

  • This is not to say external sources do not influence personality

  • The point is that behaviour is not solely a function of the situation

    • E.g., the fear we experience while watching a frightening movie is a result of the film, but the different ways we express/deal with that fear comes from within

SIX APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY

• There are so many approaches as each approach is correct, but incomplete

• Each identifies an important aspect to personality

1. Psychoanalytic approach

• people’s unconscious minds are largely responsible for important differ- ences in their behavior styles

1. Trait approach

• identify where a person might lie along a continuum of various personality characteristics.

1. Biological approach

• inherited predispositions and physiological processes to explain individual differences in personality.

1. Humanistic approach

• identify personal responsibility and feelings of self-acceptance as the key causes of differences in personality.

1. Behavioural/social learning

• explain consistent behavior patterns in terms of conditioning and expectations

1. Cognitive approach

• differences in the way people process information.

• It may be tempting to combine the approaches, but explanations from two or more of them may be entirely incompatible

TWO EXAMPLES: AGGRESSION AND DEPRESSION

• Why are some individuals consistently more aggressive than others?

AGGRESSION

1. Psychoanalytic approach

   • The unconscious death instinct

     • The unconscious desire to self-destruct

   • However, because people with a healthy personality do not hurt themselves, these self-destructive impulses may be turned outward and expressed against others in the form of aggression.

   • OR aggression results when we are blocked from reaching our goals.

1. Trait approach

   • focus on individual differences and the stability of aggressive behavior

   • E.g., people who were characterized as aggressive when young, grew to engage in domestic violence and criminal behaviour

1. Biological approach

   • some people may be born with aggressive dispositions that, depending on their upbringing, result in their becoming aggressive adults.

   • OR via evolutionary theory

   • OR vis neurotransmitters and hormones

1. Humanistic approach

   • Problems develop when something interferes with this natural growth process.

   • Aggressive children often come from homes in which basic needs are not met adequately.

   • If the child develops a poor self-image, he or she may strike out at others in frustration.

1. Behavioural/social learning

   • people learn to be aggressive the same way they learn other behaviors

   • People also become aggressive from watching models

1. Cognitive approach

   • Their focus is on the way aggressive people process information.

   • Certain cues in the environment, such as images of guns and fighting, often trigger a network of aggressive thoughts and emotions

   • When aggressive thoughts are highly accessible, people are more likely to interpret situations as threatening and respond to those perceived threats with violence

Each approach contributes something to our understanding of aggression

DEPRESSION

• Why are some people more prone to depression than others?

1. Psychoanalytic approach

   • Depression is anger turned inward

   • People suffering from depression hold unconscious feelings of anger and hostility

   • Each of us have internalized the standards and values of society, which typically discourage the expression of hostility

     • Therefore, these angry feelings are turned inward, and people take it out on themselves

   • This takes place at an unconscious level

1. Trait approach

   • Identify depression prone individuals

   • A person's general emotional level today is a good indicator of that person's emotions in the future

   • People who experience an episode of depression during their teen years are lucky to have recurring episodes in adulthood

1. Biological Approach

   • Some people may inherit a genetic susceptibility to depression

   • These people often experience repeated bouts of depression throughout their lives

1. Humanistic approach

   • Explain depression in terms of self esteem

   • People who frequently suffer from depression or those who have failed to develop a good sense of their self worth

1. Behavioural/social learning

   • Depression results from a lack of positive reinforcers in a persons life

   • Depression develops from experiences with aversive situations over which people have little control

     • Exposure two uncontrollable events creates a perception of helplessness that is generalized to other situations and may develop inito classic symptoms of depression

1. Cognitive approach

   • Some people are prone to episodes of depression because of the way they process information

   • Depressed individuals have negative thoughts about themselves, or pessimistic about the future, and tend to interpret events in a negative manner

     • Using a depressive filter to interpret and process information

PERSONALITY AND CULTURE

• Many of the assumptions developed in Western countries may not apply when dealing with people from different cultures

• People and their personalities exist within a cultural context

Individualistic cultures: Place great emphasis on individual needs and accomplishments. People tend to think of themselves as independent and unique

Collectivistic cultures: more concerned about belonging to a larger group.

• more interested in cooperation than competition

• Satisfaction is obtained when the group does well rather than from individual accomplishments

• For example, the definition of accomplishment, achievement, or success is not shared universally

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