Skeletal System:

• skull diagram

- bone types:

• long bone: tubular shaft+articular surface at each end. (humerus and femur)

• short bone: same as long bone but shorter (metacarpals/tarsals and phalanges)

• flat bone: thin and have flat surfaces (scapular, ribs, sternum)

• irregular bone: irregularly shaped (vertebrae, patella)

- Axial versus Appendicular skeleton

Why are there skull sutures?

• to allow for babies brain to grow/expand as they get older—- means that skull is made of several smaller bones not just one.

-true 1-7 versus false 8-10 versus floating 11-12 ribs

- Male versus female skeletal systems: pelvis shape+occipital bump on skull/square eye sockets

-open versus closed fractures

- Types of fractures:

• oblique: diagonal

• comminuted, shatters in several pieces

• spiral: twist break

• segmental: broke in 2 or more places /segments

• compound: open wound/breaks thru skin

• greenstick/hairline: incomplete/crack

• transverse: breaks in straight line

What is bone remodeling?

• constant recycling and rebuilding of bones by storing or using calcium in response to biological or external factors—>(diet, exercise, hormone function, sun exposure)

- Osteoclast versus blast: cells that break down tissue+release stored calcium versus b cells that store calcium and build bones.

fracture repair:

1. hematoma formation: ruptured blood vessels swell+form mass between broken bones

2. fibrocartilage callus formation: new capillaries form in blood clot, connective tissues form a mass of repair tissue called F.C. contains cartilage+bone+collagen fibers which close the gap

3. Bony callus formation: F.C. gradually replaced by one made of spongy bone— called bony callus, osteoclasts+blasts multiply + move to area.

4. Bone remodeling: over weeks, callus is remodeled with osteoclasts+blasts, bone shape return to normal

Types of Joints:

• fibrous: fixed/immovable that connects bones (sutures in skull)

• cartilaginous joint: has some motion, found in space between articulating bones (vertebrae

• synovial: movable joints that contain synovial fluid to reduce friction

  • saddle= back+ forth, side to side (thumb)

  • ball and socket= back+forth, side to side, rotation (shoulder)

  • condolyoid= back+forth, no rotating (wrist)

  • plane= gliding motion (hands+feet)

  • hinge= bending+ straightening (elbow+knee)

  • pivot= limited rotations (neck)

Range of Motion

• depression vs elevation

• rotation vs circumduction

• flexion vs extension vs hyperextension

• abduction vs adduction

• plantar vs dorsiflexion (foot)

Cells—tissues—organs—-organ system—-organism

Tissue Types:

• Epethelium: forms the linings, coverings and glandular tissue of the body (highly packed together and form continuous sheets)

  • outer layer of skin, air sacs in lungs

• connective tissue: protects supports and binds together other body tissue

  • bone, cartilage, adipose tissue, blood

• Muscle Tissue: specialized to contract and cause movement

  • cardiac- pumps heart, non-voluntary, with striations

  • skeletal- attach to bone+cartilage, movement, voluntary w/ striations

  • smooth- organs+blood vessels, support organ system, no striations, non-voluntary.

• Nervous Tissue:

  • specialized cells, neurons that send and receive electrical signals in the body

SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY: how myosin and actin filaments slide relative to one another during striated muscled contraction to decrease sarcomere length

• atp is required for muscle contraction

• muscle contracts=muscle fiber shortens

• muscle relaxes= muscle fiber returns to homeostasis

  1. muscle contraction

  2. action potential on t-tubule

  3. calcium release

  4. troponin binding

  5. power stroke

  6. actin-myosin detachment

Muscle Diagram:

Muscle rules:

1. muscles must have at least 2 attachments and cross at least one joint

2. muscles always pull and get shorter

3. moving attachment= insertion, stationary attachment= origin

4. muscles that decrease angle between ventral surface=flexor (bicep)

5. those that increase angle= extensor (tricep)

6. muscles work in opposing pairs

7. muscle striations point to attachments and show the direction of the pull

PT and OT

- Sprain: injury to a ligament that occurs when it’s overstretched

-strain: injury to muscle or tendon that occurs when overstretched.

- tear: severe injury of muscle or tendon that = torn apart

Ligaments in Knee

• ACL, MCL, LCL, PCL

NERVOUS SYSTEM:

- Brain Diagram

- Reflex versus Reaction +factors

CNS: central N System

• processing system, consists of brain+spinal cord

PNS: periphery NS

• nerves that connect CNS to sensory organs

- Gyrus (ridges) vs Sulcus (furrows)

cerebrum:

• frontal lobe: reasoning, happiness, problem solving,

• parietal: touch, temp, pain, taste (sensory)

• temporal: hearing, long term mem

• occipital: vision

Neurons: basic unit of NS, specialized to transmit info in body

• sensory neurons= transmit info from sensory receptor cells in body to brain

• Motor neurons: transmits info from brain to muscles

• Interneurons: communicate info btwn neurons

• 

action potentials: need to transmit info within a neuron and to others using electrical signals (action potential) +chemical messengers

communication btwn synapses: dendrites recieve info, pass thru cell body and down axon until axon terminal where it travels across synaptic gap and onto other dendrite. (chain)

neurotransmitters: if synapse cannot be bridged easily, chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) are released from axon terminal to cross synaptic gap to meet other dendrites+pass info. (Endorphins, Dopamine, Acetylcholine)

• excitatory transmitter: causes depolarization in postsynaptic cell’s membrane, called EPSP makes postsynaptic N more likely to release an action potential

• inhabitatory transmitter: causes hyper-polarization in membrane (IPSP) , less likely to release action potential

• Neuromodulators: regulate groups of neurons and influence the effects of other chem messengers

Drug Mechanisms:

• agonist- binds to receptor+activates it to produce a response

• inverse agonist- binds to receptor + depresses receptor activity (op. response)

• antagonist- binds to receptor+blocks receptor from activating, receptor returns to baseline

• Reuptake inhibitor- blocks reuptake of neurotransmitters from the synapse.

drugs can stimulate dopamine releases, creating a desired euphoria effect, however repeated use leads to regulatory changes+decrease in amount of dopamine released, creating tolerance

Endocrine System

- exocrine (ducts) versus endocrine (BS)

Organs:

• hypothalamus: released hormones

• thyroid gland: growth/development of body

• pineal gland: sleep-wake cycle (melatonin)

• pituitary gland: master gland, multiple hormones w/ many functions

• thymus: makes WBC’s until puberty, controls master gland

• adrenal glands: release hormones that regulate stress + Blood pressure

• pancreas- enzyme production to break down food + B Sugar, appetite

• Ovaries: estrogen+ progesterone/ reproduction/menstruation

• testis: testosterone, developing hair+muscles

Endocrine Disruptors: substances that interfere with ES +hormones (synthetic or man made)

• BPA (in plastics), Phytoestrogens (naturally in some plants/seeds), phthalates (in plastics), Triclosan (antimicrobial in various products/clothes/toys)

Toxic Metals+pesticides:

• Copper Sulfate, Cadmium chloride, zinc sulfate, pesticide = cause neural damage/diseases, infertility, and endocrine system diseases.

Glucose Level Cycle

Circulatory System:

Blood Flow:

Blood Vessels:

• arteries: takes blood away from heart, high pressure= thick

• Veins: takes blood to heart, low pressure= thinner vessels

• Capillaries: between arteries+veins, gas exchange, thin+porous

BP, HR, Pulse (rhythm)

Systolic (contracted) vs Diastolic (relaxed) =120/70

sphygmomanometer= BP

- Cardiac Output= how much blood is pumped by both ventricles in a min (mL per min)

• HR*SV= CO

Stroke Volume: amount of blood pumped out per heartbeat (mL per beat, about 75mL/beat)

- Pulse points:

• carotid (neck)

• radial

• temporal

• popliteal

• posterior tibial (inner ankle)

• dorsalis pedis (top of foot)

ABI: obstruction calculation

1. Right ABI Ratio= higher of right ankle pressures (DP or PT)/ higher arm pressure (L or Right)

2. Left ABI Ratio= higher of left ankle pressures (DP or PT)/ higher arm pressure (L or Right)

3. Lower of these ratios= overall ABI

Electrocardiogram/EKG : measures signals created by the heart to contract+pump blood.

conditions:

• myocardial infarction: blockage of blood flow to heart

• arrhythmia- irregular heart rate/rhythm
  bradycardia: too slow HB

• tachycardia: too fast HB

• fibrillation: abnormal contractions of chambers

AED- used to analyze+determine whether if it is necessary to shock heart back to normal rhythm (Temporary)

Pacemaker- electronic device, placed in as a permanent solution to maintain a normal HR

Respiratory System:

organs-

• trachea

• lungs

• larynx

• pharynx

• nasal cavity

• bronchi

• diaphragm

• cartilaginous rings

• epiglottis

• bronchioles

• alveoli

• respiratory zone

• conducting zone

Lung capacity measurements:

• tidal volume: amount of air that’s in or out of the lungs with each respiratory cycle

• inspiratory reserve volume: amount of air that can be taken into the lungs (above tidal) upon forced inspiration

• expiratory reserve volume: amount of air that can be pushed out of lungs (beyond tidal) upon forced respiration

• vital capacity: max amount of air a person can expect from lungs after max inhalation

• residual volume: volume of air you can’t voluntarily exhale (or collapse)

• total lung capacity: volume of air in lungs upon max effort of inspiration

• minute volume: amount of gas inhaled or exhaled in 1 min.

Diaphram: contracts/pulls down = drop internal air pressure/inhale

• relaxes/rises= increase internal air pressure/exhale

Pathogens:

Prions: non living/proteins

• no cure, but medications can slow progression

• causes normal proteins to fold abnormally

Viruses: caspid of DNA or RNA/non living

• antivirals,

• take over hosts cells synthesis processes/destroys tissues

Bacteria: prokaryotic

• antibiotics

• invade cells, causing tissue damage

Protists: eukaryotic, single-celled

• anti-protozoals

• infect digestive tract/ absorbs hosts nutrients

Fungi: eukaryotic

• anti-fungals

• tissues damage, inhaling spores

Helminth: eukaryotic, living

• deworming meds

• deprive host of nutrients

Sepsis: when body has an extreme response to a pathogen.

• sepsis- over reaction causing inflammation

• severe sepsis: organs begin to malfunction, BP is low, inflammation continues

• Septic Shock: extremely low BP that does not response to IV fluids

Symptoms:

• T- temp higher or lower than normal

• I- infection/ swollen lymphnodes/high WBC count

• M- mental decline, confused/ sleepy/ difficult to rouse

• E- extremely ill, sever pain or discomfort

Integumentary System:

- Skin diagram

layers:

• Epidermis: outermost layer, provides water proof barrier, creates skin tone (w/ melanocytes)

• dermis: contains touch connective tissues, hair follicles, sweat glands

• Hypodermis: subcutaneous tissue, made of fat+connective tissue

Connective tissues

• keratin: structural protein, protects cells

• collagen, structural support/degree of elasticity

• elastin, elastic protein 4 reshaping

• melanin, pigment

Lymphatic System: maintains fluid levels in the body, absorbs fats, immune system, transports and removes waste.

- organs

• tonsils

• bone marrow

• lymph nodes

• spleen- fights invading germs, contains WBC’s/ controls levels

• lymphatic vessels

• liver

• thymus: helps in development of t-cells

Types of WBC’s:

• t-cells: helper cells, recognize foreign invaders

• b-cells: binds to antigen/secretes antibodies

• natural killer cells: stops tumors/ virally infected cells

Innate Immunity (mucus in nasal/lung cavity)

Adaptive Immunity:

1. virus finds way to b-cells and binds together

2. antigen b-cells signals for our t-cells, then those bind+remember

3. b-cells make antibodies to fight off virus

4. memory cells will be triggered upon next contact bc they remember the antibodies

Ophthalmology:

- parts of eye

• iris,

• cornea, transparent sheath over iris+pupil, allows light in

• pupil,

• aqueaous humor

• lens, focuses light

• vitreous humor,

• sclera,

• tapetum, reflective layers

• optic nerve, carries messages to brain from retina

• blind spot, no light senstive cells

• retina, nervous tissue that receives and sends images thru optic nerve

Eye light path:

1. light rays enter the eye thru cornea and is filtered thru pupil to lens

2. lens changes its flexible structure to focus the image on the back of retina

3. once focused on retina, retina processes image and converts it to nerve signals that travel thru optic nerve to brain

Eye conditions:

• conjunctivitis- inflammation, redness

  • viral infection, allergic reaction

  • antibiotics, self care, eyedrops, OTC drugs

• Loaisis: non-stop ithcing, painful swelling

  • infection from loa loa worm

  • prescription meds

• Onchocerciasis: skin conditions, blindness

  • repeated bites from black flies infected by parasitic worm

  • antibiotics, meds, many years to treat, perm damage

• Trachoma: blindness/impairments, scarring/decay of corneas

  • infection of chlamydia trachomatis, often in impoverished/overcrowded areas

  • antiobiotics

• Traumatic iridodialysis: pain, glaring/blurred vision, lens +iris defect

  • blunt injury trauma

  • surgery

Urinary System:

- organs:

• kidneys- filter blood, regulate fluid volumes, produce urine

• ureter- smooth tubes, with mucosal flaps to prevent backflow

• bladder- stores urine

• urethra- tube que carries urine from bladder to outside

Kidney Diagram

Where is urine formed?

• renal medulla contains renal pyramids which form urine

What section of kidney collects urine?

• renal pelvis

How does urine move from kidney to out of body?

• from the kidney—— renal pelveis—— to ureter to be stored in bladder. upon urination, urine leaves bladder, goes thru urethra to leave body.

*Renal cortex contains Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus

*renal medulla contains collecting ducts and loop of henle

- What are the 3 functions of nephrons?

• filtration, absorption, secretion

Nephron Diagram!!

Clinical algorithms: non-invasive way to identify conditions by using:

• patients symptoms

• medical/family history

• demographics,

• test results

*used to make quick precise decisions about medical diagnosis, determines tests to be performed, interpret how to read test result, decide best course of treatment

CKD: using a GFR will help catch early stage CKD, and manage it

• risk factors are High BP, and B Sugar levels

GFR: glomerular filtration rate

• how much fluids/substances are filtered through in first step of urine production in glomerulus. abt 125mL

Symptoms of late-stage CKD:

• fluid retention— swelling in limbs, high BP, shortness of breath, pulmonary edema

• rise in potassium levels,

• anemia

• heart disease

Donar factors based on:

• tissue type (HLA typing)

• blood type

• organ size

• time on transplant list

• medical urgency of patient

  Human Leukocyte Antigen typing:

• at least 6 matches btwn patient and donor

• more matches =more likely immune system will accept organ

Blood donor chart:

Digestive System:

chemical versus mechanical digestion

Mechanical organs:

• oral cavity: teeth

• stomach: contractions

chemical organs:

• oral cavity: salivary amylase= carbs

• stomach: pepsin=protein

• duodenum (S Intestine) = pancreatic amylase, trysin, lipase

organs:

• oral cavity

• pharynx

• esophagus

• stomach

• small intestine: absorbs nutrients

  • duodenum

  • jejunum

  • ileum

• large intestine:absorbs water/electrolytes, propels waste

  • cecum

  • colon

• rectum, collect waste

• anus, release waste

accessory organs:

• salivary glands

• tongue

• teeth

• uvula, secrete saliva

• liver

• pancreas

• appendix, releases+stores microbes for gut

Sphincters: guards the opening of a tube

Digestive diseases:

• colon polyp: no symptoms, diarrhea, constipation

  • colonoscopy

  • random, fam history, overweight

• celiac disease: gas, pain, constipation, nausea

  • biopsy, colonoscopy,

  • genetic mutation, autoimmune disease

• gastroesophageal reflx disease: heart burn, sour tase, regurgitation

  • endoscopy,

  • build up of stomach acids, trigger foods/allergies

• peptic ulcers: pain in stomach, bloating, discomfort

  • endodcopy, colonoscopy

  • bacteria, small sore in intestine

• crohns disease: fever, fatigue, loss of appetite,

  • upper endoscopy

  • genetics, autoimmune disorder, fam history

• whipples disease: diarrhea, stomach pain, anemia, weakness

  • endoscopy,

  • bacteria, elderly,

Gut microbiome:

• needs diverse groups (good and bad) of microbiota to maintain health

• too much bad (dysbiosis) leads to imbalance, causing stomach pain, nausea, and diarrhea

• probiotcs live on intestinal wall, shield form harmful substances by preventing overgrowth of harmful bacteria

RFLP’s and gel electrophoresis and PCR:

PCR: polymerase chain reaction:

1. denaturing of DNA into a single strand

2. annealing of primers to each strand

3. extending the primers to each strand

4. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism, restriction enzymes used to cut DNA at specific sequences and at different lengths from person to person.