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motivation
need or desire that energizes & directs behavior
instinct theory
focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors
drive-reduction theory
focuses on how we respond to inner pushes & external pulls
physiological need creates an aroused state (drive) that motivates an orgasnism to satisfy the need
homeostasis
maintenance of a steady internal state, regulation of any aspect of body chemistry
ex. cooling down after a workout
incentive
positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior/lures or repels us
arousal theory
focuses on finding the right level of stimulation
Yerkes-Dodson Law
principle that performance increases w/ arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
ex. staying alert but not overly nervous for an exam (having a balance of arousal)
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
focused on priority of some needs over others
instinct
complex behavior that has a fixed pattern throughout a species & is unlearned/innate
physiological need
basic bodily requirement
ex. food, water
affiliation need
the need to belong, build & maintain relationships & to feel part of a group
self-determination theory
theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our 3 needs for:
competence
autonomy
relatedness
intrinsic motivation
the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake because said behavior is inherently meaningful/satisfying
enhances the feelings of the 3 needs of self-determination
extrinsic motivation
the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
tend to undermine the feelings of the 3 needs of self-determination
ostracism
deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups
ex. forms of ostracism — shunning, exile, imprisonment, solitary confinement
achievement motivation
desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, for attaining a high standard
grit
passion & perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
Walter Cannon
worked w/ A. L. Washburn to figure out what exactly triggers hunger
Washburn agreed to swallow a balloon attached to a recording device
when balloon was inflated to fill his stomach, balloon transmitted his stomach contractions
Washburn supplied info about his feelings of hunger by pressing a key each time he felt a hunger pang
results/discovery: whenever Washburn felt hungry, he was having stomach contractions, so the pangs of an empty stomach = hunger
glucose
blood sugar
sugar that circulates in the blood & provides the major source of energy for body tissues
when its level is low, we feel hunger
set point
one’s stable weight
point @ which the “weight thermostat” may be set
when body falls below this weight, increased hunger & lower metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight
basal metabolic rate
the body’s resting rate of energy output/of maintaing basic bodily functions
obesity
state of being unhealthily overweight
defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher which is calculated from our weight-to-height ratio
emotion
response of the whole organism, involving:
physiological/bodily arousal
expressive behaviors
conscious experience
Stanley Schachter
worked w/ Jerome Singer
demonstrated that how we interpret our experiences also matters
created two-factor theory
injected college men w/ epinephrine to trigger feelings of arousal (w/ Singer)
group #1 — told to expect feelings of arousal from injection
group #2 — told that the injection would help test eyesight
after receiving injection, went to a room alone where another person was either euphoric or irritated
group #1 reaction (was told truth to) — felt little emotion b/c they correct attributed arousal to the drug
group #2 reaction (was lied to) — “caught” the apparent emotion of the euphoric or irritated person in the room, became happy or annoyed themselves
results/discovery: a stirred-up state can be experienced as one emotion or another, depending on our interpretation & labelling
arousal fuels emotion, cognition channels emotion
two-factor theory
emotions have 2 ingredients:
physical arousal
cognitive appraisal (interpretation)
Robert Zajonc
contended that we actually have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our conscious interpretation if a situation
emotion before cognition
embodied responses happen instantly, w/o conscious appraisal (also LeDoux)
Joseph LeDoux
our emotions take the “low road”
emotion before cognition
embodied responses happen instantly, w/o conscious appraisal (also Zajonc)
low road
neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex
fear-provoking stimulus would travel from eye or ear directly to the amygdala
enables quick emotional response before intellectual intervention
Richard Lazarus
emotions arise when we appraise an event as harmless or dangerous
cognitive appraisal defines emotion
ex. sound of rustling bushes as an initial threat, then later realizing it was just the wind
polygraph
arousal detectors
measure emotion-linked changes in breathing, heart rate, & perspiration (sweating)
ex. used in “lie detection tests,” but actually just detect arousal
the idea that such bodily reactions are linked to lying
Paul Ekman
worked w/ Wallace Friesen
asked isolated people in New Guinea to respond to statements such as “Pretend your child has died.”
North American undergraduates viewed the isolated people’s recorded responses, could easily read their facial reactions
results/discovery:
emotions are not shared cultural experiences, but rather human nature
facial feedback effect
tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
behavior feedback effect
tendency of behavior to influence our own & others’ thoughts, feelings, & actions
