Mississippian Culture & North America

Chiefdom

A form of hierarchical political organization with a chief at the top, often supported by tribute and kinship ties.

Paramount Chief

The highest-ranking leader in a chiefdom, ruling over several smaller chiefs.

Monks Mound

The largest earthen mound at Cahokia (American Bottom), used for ceremonial and elite residential purposes.

Palisade

A defensive wooden fence or wall, often surrounding Mississippian settlements.

Cahokia

A major Mississippian city (c. 1050–1350 CE) in the American Bottom region, featuring Monks Mound and a large palisaded plaza.

City-State/Empire

Maya civilization was composed of independent city-states ruled by kings, not a centralized empire.

Hieroglyphics

The writing system of the Maya using logograms and syllabic symbols to represent words and sounds.

Stela

Stone monuments inscribed with Maya hieroglyphics and images, often commemorating rulers and events.

Epigrapher

A scholar who studies and deciphers ancient inscriptions.

Codex (Codices)

Folded books made from bark paper or animal skins; Maya codices contain astronomical, calendrical, and ritual information.

Mayan Solar and Sacred Calendars

Two main calendars: the 365-day Haab’ (solar) and the 260-day Tzolk’in (sacred) calendar used for rituals.

Long Count Calendar and Units of Time

Tracks long spans of time starting from 3114 BCE using units like baktun (~394 years), katun, tun, winal, and k’in.

Jade Death Mask

Elite Maya were buried with ____ ____, symbolizing purity and status in the afterlife.

Royal Cranial Deformation

Intentional reshaping of elite children's skulls to mark social status.

Mayan Mathematics

Vigésimal (base-20) system with concept of zero, used in calendrics and astronomy.

Stepped Pyramids

Maya built pyramids with steps and temples atop, often for rituals and burials (e.g., Tikal).

Tikal

A major Maya city-state in the Southern Lowlands (Guatemala), occupied 200–900 CE, known for temples, stelae, and palaces.

Mexica

The people who became the ruling group of the Aztec Empire founded Tenochtitlan.

Aztlan

Mythical homeland of the Mexica people.

Tenochtitlan

Aztec capital on Lake Texcoco, built on chinampas and connected by causeways; founded in 1325 CE.

Tribute

Goods or labor collected from conquered peoples, central to Aztec economy and power.

Pochteca

Long-distance merchant class who also served as spies for the Aztec Empire.

Triple Alliance

Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan in 1428 that formed the basis of the Aztec Empire.

Chinampas

"Floating gardens" built on lakebeds for agriculture in the Valley of Mexico.

Causeways

Raised roads connecting Tenochtitlan to the mainland; used for transport and defense.

Pilings

Wooden supports driven into the lakebed to stabilize Aztec buildings and chinampas.

Aqueducts

Engineered channels that brought fresh water to Tenochtitlan.

Motecuhzoma II (Montezuma)

Aztec ruler (1502–1520) during the arrival of the Spanish; died during the conquest.

Inka Road and Bridge System

Extensive network (over 24,000 miles) connecting the empire, used by runners (chasquis) for communication.

Khipu

Knotted strings used to record data like census and tribute; Inka had no written language.

Royal Inka Masonry

Expert stonework using precisely cut blocks without mortar; symbolized power and order (e.g., Cuzco, Machu Picchu).

M’ita

Labor tax system where subjects worked for the state a set number of days per year.

Pachacuti

Inka emperor (r. 1438–1471) who expanded the empire and built Machu Picchu.

Cuzco

Capital of the Inka Empire in the Andes; center of administration and religion.

Tiwanaku

Pre-Inka site near Lake Titicaca; influenced Inka architecture and religion.

Lake Titicaca

Sacred highland lake; source of Inka origin myths.

American Bottom

Floodplain in Illinois; fertile land that supported Cahokia and Mississippian chiefdoms.

Southern Lowlands of Mesoamerica

Tropical forests, home to Maya cities like Tikal, dependent on rainfall and reservoirs.

Valley of Mexico

Highland basin with lakes; site of Aztec development, including Tenochtitlan.

Lake Texcoco

Lake where Tenochtitlan was built; chinampas and causeways were constructed here.

Andes

Mountain range where the Inka developed terrace farming and infrastructure adapted to rugged terrain.

Ballgame and Bloodletting (Maya)

had religious and political roles; elites performed bloodletting to communicate with gods.

Human Sacrifice (Aztecs)

Performed to nourish the gods, especially the sun god Huitzilopochtli; victims often war captives.

Royal Mummies (Inka)

Dead rulers preserved and treated as living entities; consulted for political decisions.

Agriculture by Region

• Cahokia: Maize, squash, beans; floodplain farming.

• Maya: Slash-and-burn, terrace, raised fields.

• Aztec: Chinampas on lakes.

• Inka: Terrace farming, irrigation, freeze-dried potatoes (chuño), maize, quinoa

Glyphs in Writing Systems

Maya hieroglyphs combine logograms and syllables to represent words and sounds.

Aztec Expansion Tactics

Used intimidation, elite marriages, tribute demands, and alliances to dominate before resorting to war.

Aztec vs. Inka Administration

• Aztec: Tribute-based, decentralized, kept local rulers.

• Inka: Centralized control, direct rule, relocated populations, used m’ita labor.

Urban Innovations

• Maya: Reservoirs, causeways, pyramid temples.

• Aztec: Chinampas, aqueducts, causeways.

• Inka: Road systems, bridges, stone cities.

Collapse/Defeat

• Maya: Environmental stress, warfare, political fragmentation (c. 900 CE).

• Aztec: Spanish invasion, smallpox, internal dissent (1521).

• Inka: Civil war, Spanish conquest, disease (1533).