Key Figures and Events of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Nicholas Copernicus

Proposed heliocentric theory in astronomy.

Johannes Kepler

Confirmed sun as universe's center; elliptical orbits.

Galileo Galilei

First to use telescope for astronomical observations.

Isaac Newton

Formulated three laws of motion for celestial bodies.

Rene Descartes

Philosopher known for 'I think, therefore I am'.

Francis Bacon

Developed the scientific method in philosophy.

Thomas Hobbes

Advocated for strong government, separating religion from politics.

John Locke

Believed in natural rights and social contract.

Baron de Montesquieu

Proposed separation of powers in government.

Voltaire

Promoted freedom of thought and logical reasoning.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Advocated for individual rights and emotional expression.

Proclamation of 1763

Restricted colonial settlement beyond Appalachian Mountains.

Continental Congress

Met in Philadelphia to address colonial grievances.

Declaration of Independence

Outlined colonists' grievances against King George III.

Battle of Saratoga

Key victory leading to French support for colonists.

Battle of Yorktown

Final battle where Washington defeated British forces.

Treaty of Paris

Officially ended the American Revolutionary War.

First Estate

Roman Catholic clergy, 1% of population, 10% land.

Second Estate

Rich nobles, 2% of population, 20% land.

Third Estate

97% of population, faced heavy taxation.

Estates General

Assembly representing the three estates of France.

National Assembly

Formed by the Third Estate to limit king's power.

Tennis Court Oath

Vow to create a constitution limiting royal power.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

Guaranteed freedom, equal rights, and security.

Bastille

Prison stormed by citizens seeking weapons.

Radicals vs. Royalists

Radicals opposed monarchy; royalists supported it.

Constitution of 1791

Limited the powers of King Louis XVI.

Reign of Terror

Period of mass executions led by Robespierre.

Napoleonic Code

Established legal equality and merit-based advancement.

Battle of Waterloo

Final defeat of Napoleon in 1815.

Congress of Vienna

Aimed to restore balance of power in Europe.

Creoles

Descendants of Europeans in Latin America.

Peninsulares

Spanish officials in Latin America for temporary gain.

Haitian Revolution

Only successful slave revolt in history.

Mestizo

Mixed European and Native American descent.

Santa Anna

Lost half of Mexico's territory to the US.

Toussaint Louverture

Led Haitian revolt against slavery and colonial rule.

Miguel de Hidalgo

Roused Native Americans to fight for independence.

Agustín de Iturbide

Military leader who helped Mexico gain independence.

Simón Bolívar

Liberated several South American countries from Spain.

Benito Juárez

Reformed Mexico with land distribution and education.

José de San Martín

Liberated Argentina and Peru from Spanish rule.