Ap Psych: Unit 4

Social Psychology, Personality, Motivation, Emotion

social contagion

spread of social behaviors

conformity and social norms

an “unthinking tendency” to keep things the way they are, even if they may be wrong

conformity

adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence results from a person’s desire to do the “right” thing

individualism

giving priority to one’s own goas over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly

multiculturalism

the practice of valuing and respecting differences in culture

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others better with a crowd

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt

aversive events

unpleasant events that someone looks to avoid

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

social trap

self interest over unity - short-term gains leading to long-term consequences for the group

industrial-organizational psychology

designing a training program to improve teamwork and communication among employees, leading to increased productivity and a more positive work environment

altruism

unselfish regard for devotion to the welfare of others

social reciprocity norm

responding to a kind or generous action with another kind or generous action

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities (disposition)

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

prejudice

a negative attitude toward an entire category of people

stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one’s own group

out-group homogeneity

the perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other than they really are

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

door-in-the-face phenomenon

the tendency for people who won’t agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made

cognitive dissonance

unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs

peripheral route persuasion

attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

psychodynamic theory

any theory of behavior that emphasized internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious foes

ego

mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. Operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

denial

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings

regression

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile stage

repression

in psychoanalytical theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

sublimation (defense mechanism)

channeling threatening devices into acceptable outlets (e.g. working out)

projective tests

tests designed to reveal inner aspects of individuals’ personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimuli

humanistic psychology

perspective that emphasizes the growth potential, self-actualization, and an individual’s potential for personal growth

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition (personal factors), and environment

self-efficacy

an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

self-esteem

one’s feelings of high or low self-worth

openness (big 5)

the personality dimension that includes imagination, adventure seeking, wit, originality and creativity; people low in this dimension are emotionally stable, calm and contended

agreeableness (big 5)

the personality dimension that includes friendliness, cooperation, and warmth; people low in the dimension are cold, quarrelsome and unkind

conscientiousness (big 5)

the personality dimension that includes dependability, cautiousness, organization and responsibility; people low in this dimension are impulsive, careless, disorderly and undependable

extraversion (big 5)

a personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive

emotional stability / neuroticism (big 5)

a personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative)

motivation

how individuals persist to attain a difficult goal and how rewards affect the experience

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a psychological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

arousal theory

a theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation

self-determination theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

physiological needs

needs related to the basic biological necessities of life: food, drink, rest, and shelter

homeostasis

the maintenance of a constant internal state in a changing environment

Yerkes Dodson law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

sensation-seeking theory

this theory states that individuals seek activities and experience that gratify their need for sensation

Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory

describes various types of conflict involved in the decision making process (i.e. approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance)

approach-approach

conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

approach-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects

avoidance-avoidance conflict

conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives

instinct theory

a view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic, involuntary and unlearned responses

Leptin

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

grehlin

a hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

facial feedback hypothesis

emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify

simultaneous emotion

this occurs when two or more emotions are experienced at the same time, usually in response to a complex or conflicting situation

cognitive appraisal

our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in

broaden and build theory

positive emotions prompt people to consider novel solutions to their problems

emotion expression theory

anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise are universal emotions

display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display