Ap Psychology Unit 2 Test Review

Texture gradient

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; objects with coarse, distinct textures appear closer, while fine, smooth textures appear farther away.

Convergence

A binocular cue for depth; the inward angle of the eyes focusing on a near object. The greater the convergence (inward strain), the closer the object is perceived to be.

Linear perspective

A depth cue in which parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance (e.g., railroad tracks).

Interposition

A depth cue where an object that blocks another is perceived as closer.

Bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information—data-driven processing.

Signal detection theory

Predicts how and when we detect faint stimuli amid background noise; detection depends on signal strength and psychological factors such as expectations, experience, and alertness.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, such as when we construct perceptions drawing on experience and expectations.

Opponent-process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; explains afterimages.

Culture and perception

Culture influences how we interpret sensory input. For example, people from Western cultures may rely more on linear perspective cues (due to exposure to geometric environments), while non-Western cultures may focus more on context or relationships between objects.

Representative heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things based on how well they represent or match prototypes (e.g., assuming someone who loves poetry is more likely a professor than a truck driver).

Retrieval

The process of accessing information stored in memory.

Functional fixedness

The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions, hindering problem solving.

Belief bias

The tendency for preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making invalid conclusions seem valid or vice versa.

Shape constancy

Perceiving an object as having the same shape even when its angle of view changes.

Feature detectors

Specialized neurons (in the visual cortex, not the retina) that respond to specific features of stimuli—such as edges, angles, and movement. The retina contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) that detect light and color before signals are sent to the visual cortex.

Rods

Located in the periphery of the retina; sensitive to light and dark (black, white, gray); crucial for night and peripheral vision.

Cones

Concentrated in the fovea (center of the retina); detect fine detail and color; function best in bright light.

Binocular cue

Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes (e.g., retinal disparity and convergence).

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fearing plane crashes after hearing about one on the news).

Short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (about 20-30 seconds); capacity of about 7±2 items.

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memory for events that occurred before a brain injury.

Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system (iconic = visual, echoic = auditory).

Selective attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others (e.g., the cocktail party effect).

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, including knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Constructive memory

Memory that is not a perfect recording but is influenced by existing knowledge, beliefs, and expectations; may include false details.

Standardized test

A test administered and scored in a consistent, uniform way to ensure comparability of results.

Aptitude test

Measures potential ability to learn or perform in the future (e.g., SAT).

Intelligence test

Measures overall mental capacity, often comparing an individual's performance to that of others.

Achievement test

Measures knowledge or skills already learned (e.g., a school exam).

Test reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results over time or across forms.

Construct validity

The degree to which a test measures the concept it claims to measure (e.g., does an IQ test really measure intelligence?).

Content validity

The extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (e.g., a driving test sampling driving tasks).

Crystalized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that tend to increase with age.

Fluid intelligence

The ability to reason quickly and abstractly; tends to decrease with age.

Algorithms

Step-by-step, logical procedures that guarantee a correct solution if followed correctly.

Sunk-cost fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made, even when continuing is irrational.

Gambler's fallacy

The mistaken belief that if something happens more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future (or vice versa).

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables; can be positive (both increase), negative (one increases while the other decreases), or zero (no relationship).

Case study

In-depth study of one individual or group to reveal universal principles.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating or controlling the situation.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on behavior or mental processes, while controlling other variables.