The Enlightenment

In what ways was the Enlightenment 'self conscious'?

Through its thinkers' shared awareness that they were living in a unique era defined by reason and critical inquiry.

How did Kant define 'Enlightenment'?

As man's emergence from his self-imposed immaturity.

How were Newton and Locke intellectual forerunners of the Enlightenment?

By championing reason, empiricism, and a mechanistic worldview.

Differentiate high vs low print culture.

High print: good educational books; Low print: average people printed it and began a victim mentality.

Who were the philosophes and what did they believe?

They measured everything in comparison to reason.

What was Voltaire's view on human nature?

He was optimistic and held a secular positive view of man, denying the existence of evil.

What did Kant argue regarding beauty?

He argued for objective beauty.

What is the categorical imperative according to Kant?

All actions should comply with universal laws; if an action isn't helpful in every situation, it is not good.

How did Voltaire's quote, 'Crush the Infamous Thing' reflect the philosophes' attitude towards religion?

It indicated that religion should not interfere with reason.

What were the main complaints of the philosophes about religion?

It interfered with reason.

Define 'deism.'

Belief that a God exists but only natural laws run the world.

Define 'toleration.'

The act of putting up with a religion, not its acceptance.

How did David Hume criticize Christianity?

He claimed that miracles cannot be proven true and that Paul's assertion about resurrection undermines faith.

How did Voltaire view Christianity?

As a form of organized superstition and a source of fanaticism that hindered human progress.

What was the philosophes' view on Judaism?

If Christianity is true, then Judaism cannot be true.

What did Voltaire say about Muhammad?

He viewed Muhammad as sincere but deceived himself into believing Judaism.

What did Montesquieu believe about government?

Power should be divided within the government.

What is the best form of government according to Montesquieu?

Separation of powers.

What did Rousseau believe was the root of evil in the world?

The human condition itself; society and institutions can corrupt naturally good humans.

What did Rousseau mean by 'All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains'?

Some people need to be 'forced to be free.'

What were the salons during the Enlightenment?

Places to discuss Enlightenment ideas, often promoted by wealthy women.

Who was Mary Wollstonecraft?

Author of 'A Vindication of the Rights of Women,' advocating for women's equality.

Define 'enlightened absolutism.'

Absolute monarchs used reason to guide policies.

Who was Frederick the Great and what did he accomplish?

He invested in agriculture, education, and civil service, promoting religious tolerance.

Who was Joseph II and what reforms did he implement?

He attempted to abolish serfdom to ensure tax payment but faced resistance.

Who was Catherine the Great?

Empress of Russia who imported western knowledge and played a major diplomatic role.