important people ap euro

Petrarch

Italian Renaissance humanist, poet, and scholar, known as the "Father of Humanism"

Machiavelli

Italian diplomat, philosopher, and writer, best known for his work "The Prince", which explores political power and leadership

Henry VIII

King of England known for his role in the English Reformation, his six marriages, and the establishment of the Church of England

Ferdinand and Isabella

Monarchs of Spain who completed the Reconquista and sponsored Christopher Columbus's voyages to the New World

Erasmus

Dutch Renaissance humanist and theologian, known for his works on classical learning and for his criticism of the Catholic Church

Martin Luther

German monk and theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the Catholic Church's teachings

John Calvin

French theologian and reformer who developed Calvinism, a major branch of Protestantism

James I

King of England and Scotland, known for his belief in the divine right of kings and for commissioning the King James Bible

Charles I

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, whose reign was marked by conflict with Parliament and ultimately led to the English Civil War

James II

King of England and Ireland, overthrown during the Glorious Revolution for his Catholicism and autocratic tendencies

Charles II

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, restored to the throne after the English Civil War and the Commonwealth period

Oliver Cromwell

English military and political leader who played a key role in the English Civil War and the establishment of the Commonwealth

William and Mary

Joint monarchs of England, Scotland, and Ireland, who came to power after the Glorious Revolution and the overthrow of James II

Peter I (the Great)

Tsar of Russia, known for modernizing Russia and expanding its territory

Copernicus

Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model of the universe, challenging the geocentric model

Galileo

Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician, known for his improvements to the telescope and support for the Copernican theory

William Harvey

English physician who described the circulation of blood in the human body

Galen

Ancient Greek physician whose medical theories dominated Western medicine for over a millennium

Francis Bacon

English philosopher and statesman, considered the father of empiricism and the scientific method

Kepler

German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer, known for his laws of planetary motion

Descartes

French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, famous for his phrase "I think, therefore I am" and his contributions to rationalism

Newton

English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer, known for his laws of motion and universal gravitation

Hobbes

English philosopher known for his work "Leviathan", which discusses the social contract and the nature of government

Locke

English philosopher and physician, known for his ideas on natural rights and his influence on liberalism

Montesquieu

French philosopher known for his theory of the separation of powers, which greatly influenced modern political thought

Voltaire

French Enlightenment writer and philosopher, known for his advocacy of freedom of speech and religion

Rousseau

Swiss philosopher and writer, known for his ideas on the social contract and the general will

Wollstonecraft

English writer and early feminist philosopher, known for her work "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman"

Adam Smith

Scottish economist and philosopher, known for his seminal work "The Wealth of Nations" and his advocacy of free-market economics

Diderot

French philosopher and writer, best known for being the editor-in-chief of the "Encyclopédie", a comprehensive compilation of knowledge

Joseph II

Holy Roman Emperor known for his extensive reforms in Austria and his attempts at religious tolerance

Fredrick II (the Great)

King of Prussia known as Frederick the Great, recognized for his military conquests and administrative reforms

Robespierre

Key figure in the French Revolution, associated with the Reign of Terror and radical revolutionary politics

Napoleon

French military leader and emperor who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and conquered much of Europe

John Stuart Mill

British philosopher and political economist, known for his contributions to utilitarianism and liberalism

Karl Marx

German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary socialist, known for his theories of communism and class struggle

Emeline Pankhurst

British suffragette who played a key role in the women's suffrage movement in the United Kingdom

Friedrich Engles

German philosopher, social scientist, and co-author of "The Communist Manifesto" with Karl Marx

Emil Zola

French novelist and journalist, known for his role in the naturalist literary movement and his social critique

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian statesman who played a key role in the unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire

Garibaldi

Italian general and nationalist who played a central role in the unification of Italy

Theodore Hertzol

Austrian journalist and founder of modern political Zionism, advocating for a Jewish state

Alexander II

Tsar of Russia known for his emancipation of the serfs and other reforms

Charles Darwin

English naturalist and biologist, known for his theory of evolution by natural selection

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories on the unconscious mind and the structure of personality

Franz Ferdinand

Archduke of Austria-Hungary whose assassination triggered the start of World War I

Woodrow Wilson

President of the United States during World War I, known for his Fourteen Points and his role in the Treaty of Versailles

Adolf Hitler

German dictator who led the Nazi Party and initiated World War II, responsible for the Holocaust

Benito Mussolini

Italian fascist dictator who led Italy during World War II

Francisco Franco

Spanish general and dictator who ruled Spain from the end of the Spanish Civil War until his death

Joseph Stalin

Leader of the Soviet Union, known for his totalitarian rule and brutal policies

Winston Churchill

British Prime Minister during World War II, known for his leadership during the war

Simone de Beauvoir

French existentialist philosopher and feminist theorist, known for her work "The Second Sex"

Nikita Krechev

Leader of the Soviet Union after Stalin's death, known for his policy of de-Stalinization

Mikhail Gorbachev

Last leader of the Soviet Union, known for his policies of glasnost and perestroika, which led to the end of the Cold War