Sociology 2463 Midterm 2

Absolute poverty

The lack of basic necessities (food, shelter, clothing, etc.)

Poverty threshold (poverty line)

The income level at which a family can afford basic necessities

Poverty Rate

The percentage of people living below the poverty line

Two explanations of poverty

Structural and cultural

Structural explanation of poverty

Refers to societal forces (like statuses, roles, networks, and institutions) that organize our lives

Emphasizes role of societal circumstances on poverty

Two types of structural forces

1. Social acts

2. Social processes

Social acts

Behaviors of individuals in particular positions of society (police profiling, teachers putting kids in academic or advanced classes, etc.)

Social processes

Societal arrangements that shape relations among its members (mass incarcerations, school tracking, etc.)

Cultural explanation of poverty

Refers to shared views and behaviors of individuals who encounter similar societal circumstances (non AP-enrolled Black students' perceptions of Black peers in AP courses as acting superior and their teasing behaviors)

Emphasizes role of individual traits on poverty

Traditional version of the term (simple) - the "culture" of a group that determines behavior

Modern version of the term (complex) - the cultural "tool kit" people use to determine behavior

Jay MacLeod

Studied the difference between The Brothers and The Hallway Hangers

The differences and similarities between The Brothers and The Hallway Hangers

The Brothers - black kids in a low income neighborhood that didn't give in to the positions that they were put into, tried to work hard and do well in their classes and go to college. They didn't end up doing well and many were struggling

The Hallway Hangers - white kids in a low income neighborhood that created a subculture where to be bad was to be good, refused to enter a competition that they couldn't win, seen as hoodlums, gave into position that they were put into in life. They did poorly and many were in jail or had drug problems

Achievement ideology

The belief in equal opportunity in America based on merit (anyone can succeed if they work hard enough)

How did The Brothers and Hallway Hangers responded to achievement ideology?

The Brothers swallowed this ideology while the Hallway Hangers rejected it

Race definition

A social construction shaped by social, economic, political, and cultural forces

What does race being a social construction mean?

Race is not based on set genetic differences between groups. It is based on social norms and social groupings, and it is always changing

Ethnicity definition

A shared lifestyle informed by cultural, historical, religious, and/or national affiliations

Nationality definition

Governmental citizenship

Relationship/difference between race, ethnicity, and nationality

Race is a socially constructed classification based on physical traits like skin color, hair texture, or facial features

Ethnicity is a cultural identity based on shared ancestry, language, traditions, or history

Nationality is the legal citizenship that a person has in a country

Five fallacies about racism

individualistic, legalistic, tokenistic, ahistorical, fixed

Individualistic fallacy about racism

The claim that racism is limited to beliefs and attitudes of individuals

Ex: Racism is limited to stereotypes about different racial groups

Legalistic fallacy about racism

Conflates de jure (according to law) racial progress with de facto (according to fact) racial progress

Ex: Residential segregation is illegal so it doesn't happen, but gerrymandering occurs very frequently

Tokenistic fallacy about racism

People of color in influential positions means racial equality

Ex: Barack Obama or Jennifer Lopez

Ahistorical fallacy about racism

Racial history is inconsequential to present

Ex: Even though the Protestant Reformation happened so long ago, it still has effects on how we experience religion today

Fixed fallacy about racism

Racism is fixed across space and time

Ex: Racism is the same in the North/South and hasn't increased/decreased over time

Racism definition

The belief that one race is superior to another, or the practice of discriminating, hating, or being prejudiced against someone based on their race

Other terms to describe racism

Domination and power

Various types of racism

Symbolic, political, social, economic

Symbolic type of racism

Classification of groups as "normal" and "abnormal"

Political type of racism

Grants/withholds governmental rights

Social type of racism

Grants/denies societal membership

Economic type of racism

Grants/denies economic privileges

Two manifestations of racism

interpersonal and institutional

Interpersonal racism

Racial domination in everyday micro-level interactions

Institutional racism

Racial domination built into the policies and practices of institutions (schools, workplaces, economy, family, etc.)

Sex definition

Biological characteristics of males and females

Gender definition

Social characteristics of men and women that we associate with the sex categories

Relationship/difference between sex and gender

You're born as a sex (based on reproductive organs, chromosomes, and hormones), but gender is a social construct

What does it mean for gender to be a social construction

Gender norms are social definitions of behavior that are assigned to particular sex categories and that change over time, place, and context

Gender is constantly created and recreated out of human interaction

We learn about gender through socialization

We perform gender through our actions and behaviors

Our gender performance has social consequences, and our actions have gendered meanings attached to them

Masculinity and Femininity

Masculinity and femininity emphasize gender and are social constructions and have diverse forms

Masculinities and femininities are perpetuated in daily interactions and within social institutions (family, education, workplace, etc.)

CJ Pascoe

Studied homophobic bullying

Homophobic bullying definition

Deployed aggressive behavior based on same sex desire and practices

How is homophobic bullying about gender

It's a type of gender socialization that is deployed on people regardless of their sexuality and punishes people for acting outside of gender norms

What did Elizabeth Armstrong, Laura T. Hamilton, Elizabeth M. Armstrong, and J. Lotus Seeley do?

Examined how undergraduate women use the S-slur by observing 53 college women in a dorm over time

"S slur" shaming (definition)

Slandering women for presumed sexual activity

Findings about "S slur" shaming

It's often viewed as internalized oppression

Women also use the sexual double standard men created

Women and men both use the S-slur to draw status and class boundaries

Both high- and low-status women use the S-slur

High-status women use it to assert class advantage

Low-status women use it to express class resentment of high-status affluent women for their exclusivity

The S-slur is used to create status differences in sexual privilege

High-status women had more sexual privilege than low-status women

Sexual double standard

Women's pursuit of sexual activity should depend on relationship status or "love" while men should pursue sex regardless

Sexual privilege

The ability to engage in sexual experimentation

Gender revolution definition

The movement/progress towards gender equality

The four indicators used to describe gender revolution and its stall

Employment/labor force participation

Educational attainment (college and graduate degrees)

Desegregation of fields of study and occupations (how male/female dominated different majors and jobs are)

The gender pay gap (earnings of full time workers)

Two explanations of gender inequality

Demand and supply side

Demand side of gender inequality

Focuses on what employers do (hiring, promotion, pay, and firing practices)

Example: Employers discriminate based on gender (workplace advantages/disadvantages based on gender instead of merit, explicit and implicit biases, on the interpersonal and institutional level)

Supply side of gender inequality

Focuses on what workers do (decisions about educational training, employment, or stay at home)

Example: There are gender disparities in labor force participation (women are opting out of the labor force, decision based on gender stereotypes: men (breadwinner) and women (nurturer), the push factor is employer discrimination and the pull factor is household labor)

What explanation (demand or supply) do the Quadlin, Hochschild, and Percheski studies fall under?

Quadlin - demand

Hochschild - supply

Percheski - supply

Examples of explicit and implicit gender bias and interpersonal and institutional levels of gender inequality

Explicit biases - a manager saying "women aren't leadership material"

Implicit biases - speaking over women in meetings more often

Interpersonal inequality - teachers calling on boys more than girls in class

Institutional inequality - gender pay gaps in the same role

Intersectionality (what does it illuminate and how does it improve our understanding of human experience)

Intersectionality illuminates multiple and overlapping systems of advantage/disadvantage based on various social categories

Human experience can't be fully understood by focusing only on one system or social category in isolation from others

What is experimental method/audit study and is it a good test for discrimination?

This is when nearly identical individuals are created with only one key trait difference (gender, race, etc.) and the differences between them are tested to see if discrimination is occurring

It's a good test for discrimination because it eliminates the possibility of other competing factors

What did Natasha Quadlin want to know?

Quadlin wanted to know if having a high GPA help or hurt women when entering the job market

What was Quadlin's first study and what did it find?

In her first study, she submitted job applications for fake applicants, changing only GPA, gender, and major, and measured callback rates

Women who have very high GPAs face a disadvantage when applying for jobs because employers value "likability" and think that women with high GPAs are less sociable and relatable

Men do not experience this same penalty for having very high grades

What was Quadlin's second study and what did it find?

In her second study, she made a survey for company hiring decision-makers and asked if they'd recommend them for an interview and asked for feedback about qualifications and personal characteristics

Employers valued competence and commitment for male applicants

Employers valued likeability for female applicants

Moderate achieving women were seen as sociable and outgoing

High achieving women were viewed skeptically

What did Arlie Hochschild study?

The second shift

Second shift definition

Household labor, often performed by women, in addition to career work

Findings of Hochschild study

Wives did more household labor than husbands

Husbands expected wives to do most of the housework

Employers expected women to work jobs designed for men

Families that shared "second shift" were happier

Conflict between family and work contributes to stalled gender revolution

Calls for the sharing of gender roles of breadwinner and household labor

Global inequality definition

The unequal distribution of resources across the globe

Indicators of global inequality

Economic indicators/inequality, quality of life, governmental indicators

Economic indicators of global inequality across nations

Gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national income (GNI)

Gross domestic product (GDP)

Total goods and services in a country divided by the population (per capita)

Gross national income (GNI)

Money earned in a country overall

Three measures that make up the Human Development Index (HDI)

Life expectancy at birth, expected years of schooling, and GDP per capita

Ways to measure economic inequality within nations

Income share, absolute poverty, extreme poverty

Income share

Ratio of the highest 20% of income to the lowest 20% of income

Extreme poverty

Living on less than $2.15 a day, adjusted for purchasing power

Quality of life measure examples

Education (years of school), health (life expectancy)

Governmental indicator examples

Country ruled/organized, free/fair elections, free press, military power

Theories of global inequality

Modernization theory, world systems/dependency theory

What is the modernization theory?

Countries evolve from traditional to modern as they develop toward prosperity

How do modern and traditional countries differ?

Modern countries

- Capitalist economy

- Democratic political system

- Judeo-Christian religion

- Western consumer oriented lifestyle

Traditional countries

- Socialist, barter, or other economy

- Non-democratic system, monarchy, military rule

- Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, etc.

- Lifestyle not based on consumption, but subsistence

What are characteristic of "modern" individuals?

Punctual, willingness to plan, aspirations for the future, understanding of technology, rational, individualistic

Assumptions of modernization theory

Consumption is desirable, US is the model

Shortcomings of modernization theory

Ethnocentric: belief in superiority of one group over another, too simple: assumes one linear path

What does the world systems/dependency theory argue?

Global inequality stems from a capitalist system where the rich core nations exploit poor peripheral nations, trapping them in underdevelopment through unequal trade

What are the three types of countries in world systems/dependency theory?

Core, periphery, semi-periphery

What are core countries?

Advanced, wealthy, powerful countries (US, western Europe, Japan, Australia)

What are periphery countries?

Poor nations with little power (poor nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America)

What are semi-periphery countries?

Middle groups of countries that serve as a buffer (Mexico, Brazil, and China)

What are the periods of history that explain evolution of relationship between core, periphery, and semi-periphery countries?

Commercialism, imperialism, and multinationalism

When was the period of commercialism and how did it contribute to the evolution of the relationship between core, periphery, and semi-periphery countries?

Commercialism (1500s - 1700s)

Early global trade area

European powers expanding trade routes

Focus on acquiring goods and services for profit

Birth of long-distance capitalist markets

The core countries formed by controlling the trade routes and the periphery regions emerged by being used as sources of raw materials

When was the period of imperialism and how did it contribute to the evolution of the relationship between core, periphery, and semi-periphery countries?

Imperialism (1700 - 1950)

Also referred to as colonialism

European nations, and later the US and Japan, colonized most of the world

Core countries took over periphery territories

Semi-periphery countries industrialized later and were exploited by core countries but also exploited peripheries

When was the period of multinationalism and how did it contribute to the evolution of the relationship between core, periphery, and semi-periphery countries?

Multinationalism (1950 - present)

End of colonialism and emergence of independent nations

Even though colonies are politically independent, economic dependence continues

Core countries still control banking systems, technology, global supply chains, and international trade rules

Periphery countries still rely on exporting raw materials, cheap labor, and foreign investment

Semi-periphery countries produce goods and climb the economic ladder, but remain subordinate to the core's institutions

What were the three periods of history in the world systems/dependency theory marked by?

Unequal exchange

What type of countries exploit which in the world systems/dependency theory?

Core countries exploit the periphery

What was the spent activity?

Activity where you have to make choices in your simulated life and try not to run out of money

What was the eviction lab activity?

A map that had information about eviction rate, poverty rate, rent, etc. in different areas

What was the phenotype survey activity?

A survey that asked about race, gender, hair type, and eye color from the students in the class

What was the census activity?

A look at how the census's race information changed overtime. The census's options for race changed overtime from free white people, other free people, and slaves to including more and more races, allowing people to pick their own race, and allowing people to choose multiple races

What was the implicit association test (gender-career IAT) activity?

A test of your implicit biases about associating men/women with the workplace/the home

What was the gender statistics at OSU activity?

A site that had information about women vs men at OSU and compared the genders in terms of majors, graduation rates, retention rates, etc.

What was the commercials (gender in workplace/education/family) activity?

There were four groups that each found a commercial from a specific time period (1940s, 1970s, 1900s-2000s, 2024-2025)

What was the parent help interview activity?

People shared a story of the last time they asked a parent for help, including which parent they reached out to, why they reached out to that parent, and how the parent responded (most people reached out to their mother)

What was the world mapper activity?

Shows information about the economy, education, and health in countries around the world by changing the size of the countries to reflect the differing statistics

Growing up poor in America (PBS) documentary

Some structural factors of poverty in the documentary were the unstable labor market, the high housing costs and eviction risks, the weak safety net and healthcare inequality, and the racial inequality in neighborhoods

Some cultural factors of poverty in the documentary were shame around seeking help and making do with limited resources

The documentary shows poor families patching together gig work supporting Edin's research

The documentary shows how poor families struggle with eviction and losing housing and don't receive housing assistance, supporting Desmond's research

The documentary rejects the idea of cultural explanations of poverty because the families worked hard and made responsible decisions

Kathryn Edin video (Stanford Center for Poverty and Inequality)

To survive economically, mothers worked, got under the table money from absent fathers and boyfriends, and received welfare from nonprofit groups

Extreme poverty tripled between 1996 and 2014 because of the welfare system shift from Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) to Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), which decreased the number of families receiving cash assistance and ended the broad cash entitlement for needy families. The new policies helped those with earnings through Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) rather than those with no earnings.